Validity and Reliability; Which is More Important in Today's High Research Paper

validness and Reliability Which is More Important in Todays High Stakes testing - Research Paper ExampleWhile high-stakes testing may return similar outcomes in the tests of assorted students, which is an element of reliability, one might wonder whether it is reliability that America really needs. In this regard, it is necessary to visit the rigour, where this paper proposes that validity is more important as far as this testing approach is concerned.Validity has been defined as the extent to which a test measures what it is meant to measure. If a test is valid, it measures exactly what it is meant to measure as purely as not to, by chance, influence any some other factors. With validity, focus is not just now on the scores measured, but on the inferences that one is able to deduce from the putzs. As such, the inferences made from a valid test are supposed to be suitable, meaningful, and useful (Lang & Wilkerson, 2008). This is the complex link that sheds clean luminance on the clear distinction between validity and reliability. In other words, as one would infer, it is executable for a testing instrument to measure something apart from the construct that it was supposed to measure, and do it reliably.On the other hand, a measure that is not reliable can never be said to be valid. In this light, reliability is quite necessary a measure, but it is quite inadequate in relation to validity a valid instrument, therefore, has to be reliable, which a reliable instrument does not nourish to be valid. In testing, it is a common understanding that based on the aforementioned relationship, violations of validity are expected to have more severe impacts, as compared to reliability. One would, therefore, agree that validity is more complex and important an instrument that reliability and is less understood compared to the latter. In addition, it cannot be substantiated by any one statistic. Having mentioned that, it is important to talk about the important

How does the University of Phoenix Work to Combat Plagiarism Essay

How does the University of Phoenix Work to Combat buccaneering - Essay ExampleThrough the constitution expressed in the code, a disciple is held responsible for committing a plagiaristic violation if he or she is found copying exact information of another individual for personal use or reword statements and other portions of the whole content without proper citation of the work or information source.Moreoer, the University of Phoenix makes it a point that each school member adheres to the policy as it promotes being the Center for Writing chastity (CWE) by which good writing skills in the absence of plagiarism are ensured for the sake both of favored academic and professional accomplishments. Thus, in the get on endeavor of dealing with the issue of plagiarism, CWE provides utilities such as Plagiarism Checker, WriterPoint, and review via tutor to detect plagiarism, correct flawed grammatical structures, as well as go to bed thorough evaluation of a written piece.With up-to-d ate technology-based Plagiarism Checker, CWE has been able to render efficient supervise of student work. To see if there are any items unduly copied in exact content and ecesis whether, through a bulk of phrases or choice of few words, Plagiarism Checker works akin a serious investigator. By scanning student compositions against a wide range of electronic resources retrieved over the web and ProQuest database, such system is highly capable of tracking all details that match amidst creations under intensive check. In addition, the Certificate of Originality attached to every product of labor sets each student on a challenge to test individual accountability and integrity on conveying a pledge that swears his or her work is an original, affirming that all necessary citations are properly carried out and that no virtuoso else shares the same text in full or in part. As a consequence, student professionalism is further enhanced on managing to guarantee that the well-accomplished ac ademic paper in partial fulfillment of a naturally in theUniversity of Phoenix is 100% plagiarism-free as certified authentic by its laborer.

The community paramedic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The lodge paramedic - Essay ExampleJohns Ambulance of Western Australia) community paramedics are described as follows by The Council of Ambulance regimen (CAA) report from the year 2009The advantages of this new development are numerous and community focused. First, is that there is better gateway to healthcare avails for isolated patients. Paramedics are often trained to reach remote locations and deal with divers(prenominal) situations whether acute, emergency or chronic. This need is further exacerbated by the fact that physicians have been unwilling to attend to patients at home level (Money) due to matters of violence, cost and other issues (Magin P) (J). This therefore makes it possible for patients to access better healthcare in these remote areas.They, also provide an alternative to crowding of local health facilities that may be small or inadequately equipped. This is because facilities are known to be less equipped due to the decrease populous of the rural areas. Th e paramedics though, have adequate training and access to facilities such as life gage that can be utilized in certain settings to enhance survival odds of patients before they take hold of access to larger more equipped hospitals.Another advantage of the community paramedics is the reduction of load on the national emergency system 911, as they attend to the repeat cases and cases such as those of prank callers, do drugs abusers, chronically ill and mentally ill patients. This has a subtle advantage as it allows the 911 service to be more effective as an emergency tool for the truly deserving cases. This, though, is not to imply that the low cases are less deserving. This also reduces the total budget cost on the state thus mirthful the resources to provision of healthcare on other levels.Another advantage of this new venture is the fact that chronically ill patients, elderly patients and patients in need of frequent checkup can be catered for this is a service previously hard to come by, but highly essential for this

Business in South Africa Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Business in southbound Africa - Coursework ExampleWith the aid of the SWOT and pestilence analytical models, it was determined that the South African e-commerce sector is indeed a lucrative one, despite the on-going global financial crisis, which started course back in 2007. Therefore, it is recommended that Google penetrates the South African food market by creating an online fellowship portal only, speckle maintaining its main operations in the United States. Module 1 IDENTIFYING GLOBAL condescension OPPORTUNITIES Business Idea As one of the world-renowned providers of information through search engine services, Google is trying to flip ones wig its coverage not only in the Asian subcontinent, but into the African territory as well. That is why, the present-day(prenominal) written report will study the various points for consideration, particularly the strategic implications of such a move on the companys operations and financial conditions. The service will not just inc lude providing net for the community per se, but it will also include providing the community with a place for socialization online, eke out with business advertising, contacts, community information and the like (Modise, 2011). Such type of service would be a smart package for Google beca do the pioneer for such business venture is ITEC with its Portal de Ciudad website package in Spain (Interview with, 2010). Utilizing the simplest, insofar one of the most valuable analytical tools, such as SWOT analysis, PEST analysis and ostiarys Five Forces model, the different key merits of conducting such a market penetration strategy would be identified and later incorporated into a strategic implementation process, which would also be outlined in the current paper. Potential Markets Google has a large variety of products and... Determining and analyzing Googles opportunities in the South African market would require the utilization of two analytical methods, namely SWOT and PEST. Analy zing the immediate environment employ the SWOT model would allow for a better understanding of the companys strengths, opportunities and threats, all of which argon vital for the success of our business venture in an entirely new locale of operations.The current paper discusses various political, economic, socio-cultural and technological conditions that have an impact on Googles international strategy, particularly in maintaining its fuck as a well-known search engine service provider all over the globe, while endeavoring to penetrate the booming South African e-commerce market. With the aid of the SWOT and PEST analytical models, it was determined that the South African e-commerce sector is indeed a lucrative one, despite the ongoing global financial crisis, which started way back in 2007. Google networking system in South Africa will be a vital agent in the development of this country. As a result everything will be improved. From the finding of cheaper products will elicit t he profits of our harbors because of the lower outside influences on countries to trade within our harbor, thus creating a larger market of opportunity. The adaptation of Google falls into a demand whereas not to many family have access to the internet. The solution in this case will be a decision whereas charity will grow for the potential use of schools in almost every region of South Africa.

Types of Unemployment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Types of Unemployment - Essay ExampleFor example, parent in machinery and changes in souk conditions frequently turn many abilities outdated this naturally raises the rates of joblessness.This kind of unemployment happens when employees crawfish any(prenominal)times to shift from one job to a different one. It king be the case when some employees discover new occupations before they depart their previous ones. Many workers depart or lose their whole kit previous to containing other jobs waiting. In such a situation, an employee must look about for a job that is excellent for them, and this procedure takes some occasions (Tucker, 2008). The condition is not considered particularly difficult from an economic demo of view.This type of joblessness is credited to economic reductions and business series happening to the economy. It happens during depression when the demand for merchandise and service in the market cascades, some corporations react by reducing output and firing emplo yees leading to joblessness (Tucker, 2008). dismissed snow remover fits in the structural form of unemployment since, removing the snow might depend on the market take and its dynamic differences. Unemployed technician and a recent graduate fit in the fractional joblessness since the person might be looking for the profession that best suits

How to buy a car Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

How to bargain for a gondola political machine - Essay ExampleKnow what car you would like to buy. Check out the net profit and brochures about their technical specifications if they suit your preference and your needs. Check your budget for the car you would be purchasing. After search on the internet and many car brochures, be sure to aim that money that would require you to avow the car of your choice. You can then go to the store where your chosen car is available. Approach a car dealer to assist you with your purchase. Your car dealer would introduce a lot of options that would confuse you. Get lawful and state your preferences and budget so that the dealer can easily assess the car for you. As you would be paraded with the many fancy cars in their showroom, get back to the reason why you are buying the car so that you will not be confused. If you have chosen the car, check out the technical specifications to irritate sure they suit to your needs and qualifications. Don t be afraid, ask for test drives. You have to have a first hand experience with the car before purchasing it to make sure that it would be the car for you. If you have some doubts, try another one that you think might be better. In choosing the car for you, you have to be sure with everything. If you found the one, make sure it is worth it. Settle the payment methods with your car dealer and arrange for the papers and shipment of your

US Treasury Yields Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

US Treasury Yields - Essay ExampleHigh-interest rates and inflation during Carter government activity discouraged investment with US long- marches Treasury yield exceeding 15% and short term T-Bills yielding nearly 20%. Reagan regime restored consumer confidence, through the appointment of Paul Volcker the chair of Federal keep Board with his tireless effort and determination of defeating a national economic disaster bore fruits. His fruits were set the nation into an intentional recession where money supply was tightened, which slowed down the pace of economic growth in the economy, reducing the employment. Inflation was completely abated in the year 1982.After inflation Volcker was devoted to rejuvenating the economy, one of the policies was to invalidate the interest rates, this increased money in circulation within the economy that advance investment reduced the court of production and cost of living taming demand-pull and cost pull inflations. Reduction in interest rates e ncouraged investment with long T-Bills yielding 1% and short-term T-bill yielding 4%.Federal Reserve whim to increase the interest rates testament increase the cost of capital in the economy, and a consumer will be compelled to spend extra coins on the food basket. It will also be translated to investment where receivable to high-interest rates the profit margins of the lenders will be reduced, moneylenders lend with an objective optimizing revenue.

Family law Reform of Divorce Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Family law Reform of Divorce Law - Essay ExampleHowever, it is entangle that it is considered to premeditate on the Act still though its situation is still indecisive, as it has a rope of powers and decency in the perpetuation of the strengthenment of a family. 2Under the en moldment, intercession is presented since it has numerous recompenses such as it works come forth disputes harmoniously, and it can trim down the build-up of indictments in the court. There has existed anticipation that the debate underscores the decency of the separation reform that transpired in England. Possibly, we may gain knowledge of England in presenting a novel section of Family Law Act to the non-Muslims and to establish arbitration as a substitute approach in the resolution of a family difference of opinion. Overview of the register Law on Divorce The part law that came in with the family law came as, reinforcement to the previous divorce law that had presented earlier, in the divorce reform tha t occurs in 1969. The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1973 has also been updated further fashioning the divorce law easier and diverse for persons in need of divorce. The above trifle barred the intention of presenting procedural no-fault divorce through the utilization of irrevocable breakdown basis, although, it fabricated matter through the retention of a slip up as proof of the presented collapse. The substitute consensual and non-consensual divorces that had been presented in early years nigh twenty years have gotten a shift from the new laws that have become instituted, in the in the novel act.3The early reform provisions in the old constitution have gotten a replacement together, with the rest of the matrimonial faults that appeared, in terms of infidelity, manners and abandonment by the independent announcement of the matrimonial failures or collapses. The modification hold the existing accompaniment assistance system that has records or has been for all this cartridge ho lder been in effect as from 1973 that had been uncovered to 1984 amendment.4 In ossification to the novel act, from the enactment, the absolute bar gets retained concerning the initiation of any divorce proceedings within the first year of a couples spousals as the issue got settled in the 1973 provisions on a matrimonial act that got endorsed in 19845. This insinuates that the matter discourages impetuous suits. In the act, some of the undeniable transformations are the new act concerning auxiliary relief. In this section, the exceptional trials have to be settled prior to granting of any divorce directive.6 In accordance with the act of 1857, the effigy generated a fresh divorce court that bared authority in marriage trails that formerly enjoyed the ecclesiastical courts. During this epoch, the foundation for the creation of a divorce trial steadily broadened with the commendations of the royal regimen up to 1937, when the current divorce law was acknowledged for the succession of the previous or former act on the same.7 Around this epoch in the account of England, sexes, males and females had similar access to the matrimonial liberties unlike in the past where men got firsthand chances to offer divorces to their spouses. The idea of divorce became clearer on womens side as they bared an access to bring their petitions. The matter came in as a compliment although, for most conserves of traditional practices, it came as a big surprise. The issue raised many outcries from the male dominion even though it was for the good of the ensuring democracy within all populace withno regards to any prejudice.

Product Liability Lawsuit against Toyota Research Paper

mathematical product Liability Lawsuit against Toyota - Research Paper ExampleThey confessed the problem into the design and announced to get the vehicles back. It was a product safety issue which had to be faced by a world top secern car manufacturer. The negative propaganda was started and then it was then investigated by internal as well as external experts.After the examination of the various samples, it was no more a doubt that the design was faulty in real. It was a mega decision to call it back (Product Safety Civil Penalties Improvement Act, 2007). It brought billion dollars loss for the owners. A total of 10 million vehicles across the globe faced the same problem and this was strictly called into action. The club had to pay $50 million for the record fines and is facing several lawsuits and the huge question mark on the credibility of the company. In the class-action lawsuits, there were claims of over $100 million dollars and the market value went down by $30 billion. However, that was not a time to blame anything. The reputation of Toyota motors was rapidly gone down in a few weeks. After the announcement of taking the vehicles back, the experts analyzed the scenario according to their own judgment and purchasable information. Some of the critiques even revealed that it was a deliberate publicity stunt. Whatever it was, but Toyota motors evident the history with a unique case which was never before.

Memento (2000) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Memento (2000) - Essay caseThese include a single problem facing the virtuoso, comic relief and getting the auditory modality to desire what the protagonist is fighting for. In Memento, Leonards mind is fixed on one thing still slash down his wifes killer and kill them. There is comic relief in the story when Leonards details, such as having been an insurance investigator, and the story of Sammy, who also suffered a memory loss. The audience sympathize with Leonard.Leonard believes the second attackers name was John while the second name begins with G. He, therefore, embarks on an investigation to find John G. The plot of the require also details Leonards attempts to track down the second attacker with the name John G. The film develops in reverse sequence, showing the protagonist hot on the heels of a certain John G. He meets a man named Teddy whose skillful name turns out to be John Edward Gammell. Believing it is John G., he kills him. In the final monochrome sequence, sti ll in reverse, Leonard learns about an some other man, Jimmy Grantz and is told that he is a John G (memento, n.p.). Leonard publication to kill him.The film-makers have adopted a complicated narrative technique to tell the story. They present the film in two parts the black-and-white section and color section. The black-and-white segment chronologically depicts Leonard as he hunts down his wifes killer and ends when he kills Jimmy Grantz. The color segment, on the other hand, is presented in reverse. It begins with Leonard killing Teddy and works back in time to moment Leonard discovered that he had killed the wrong man, Jimmy Grantz (Memento, n.p.). Consequently, the events in the film ar not presented chronologically as the two segments are intertwined throughout the movie.The films protagonist is Leonard Shelby. Leonard is hunting for his wifes killer and the only mite he has is that the killer bears the name John and the second name begins

Lasting Impression Company Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Lasting Im vexion Company - Case depicted object Examplepply for the installation of newer presses that would enable the company to meet its goals and also produce prints than the previous versions by the sr. presses. At the current moment, the company has considered the sale of the older presses in favor of acquiring newer versions. However, in this case, dickens versions of presses are available from which each, A and B, have differing output qualities. For example, press A is considered to be highly automatize and selling at $830,000 with an installation fee of 40,000 while press B has a purchase toll of $640,000 with an installation fee of 20,000 considering it is not as sophisticated as press A.Analytically, press A is of higher(prenominal)(prenominal) apprize than press B due to its capabilities in producing prints of higher quality. However, when considering its determine after five age after purchase, it will have depreciated to less than 50% of the current purchase a s it would be fair to trade at $400,000 which is $15,000 less than the 50% mark on its current value. When considering press B, its current value is $640,000 and will be valued at 330 after five years before taxes. Considering the current value and the future value, press B would be of higher value considering the current rate of depreciation. After deprecative to $330,000, press B would have depreciated by 48.4275% which is higher than the depreciation of press A of 51.8072%.When considering the initial investments, operational cash inflows, and terminal cash flows of each of these presses, press A has higher investment as it has a purchase price of $830,000 and an installation fee of $40,000 making its total investment $870,000. On the other hand, press B has a smaller investment budget as it trades at $640,000 and has an installation fee of $20,000 making its total investment $660,000. With reference to the operating cash inflows, press A seems to have a higher cash inflow con sidering it is in its best functionality for the five years before it is considered a candidate

Relationship Between Parent and Child Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Relationship Between Parent and Child - Essay shellJulie, as known by her father, started out as a warm, sensitive, sweet child and very loose going child. She was a bubbly little girl who was curious and creative and had a very positively charged disposition. Her profile was painted by her father with loving words, projecting an ideal daughter that brought her parents much exult and pride. This grade of personality usually results from having a secure attachment with her parents while outgrowth up. In the graduation few years of life, a child with a secure attachment can learn how to eternal rest separation and reunion. She is unafraid when she gets separated from her parents, trusting that they will be back for her. On the other pass by a child with an insecure attachment to his mother manifests panic, anger and a desperate search for her, thinking that she will never come back. When the mother returns, a host of responses may be observed of the child. most children wou ld be delighted and warmly embrace the parent others would appear to be indifferent, withdrawn, hostile, uncertain or confused. The kind of response the child had led the psychological observers to develop the attachment categories of secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant and disorganized. Schore (2001) claim that infants attachment experiences are stored in the early maturing right hemisphere of their brain, which have long term effects on how they cope with tenseness in the future. Hence, it is suffice to say that attachment is crucial to the emotional development of the child, and this is reflected in Julies personality as a child.... He allowed them to make mistakes because from these, they learn too. He claims, I never confronted the children directly when they make a mistake, I but always guided them until they got it right. I wanted to enrich their environment in order to boost their self-esteem and their confidence. This reflects Vygotskys (1978) theory of tuition w here it is believed that children learn within a partition off of proximal development (ZPD) or the distance among a childs independent problem-solving direct and that obtained under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Wertsch, 1985). It is the space between what a child can do by himself and a more challenging level that he can achieve with help from someone. In the case of Julie and her sister, their parents provided scaffolds or temporary supports in the process of learning which are gradually taken away when the children are already capable of learning without them. Most parking area conflicts/disagreements/challenges between parent and child Anthony remembers Julie as a very well-behaved child so in that respect werent much conflicts or disagreements between them. The only challenging thing that he remembers is her insistence to convey her own clothes every morning, careful not to repeat outfits within close periods of time. If she had no pickax b ut to wear pants two days in a row due to race problems, she would throw a fit. That is the only time that I can remember when Julie would get mad, scream and rallying cry and go to her room. Otherwise, it was smooth sailing with Julie because she was quite mature for her age. The misbehaviour that Julie displayed was a manifestation of her growing up into a young lady who wants to prove that she is capable of making her own

American History Master Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

American History Master - Essay ExampleI shall as well highlight how the new world order was disrupted by America.Law on the outside(a) level is dependent on a states acceptance to be effected to the enforcement of laws. States must be willing to subject themselves into the international legal process. In international law, there is no single enforcement mechanism, which sometimes causes individuals to question the hardship of international law. They question whether international law is a fundamental requirement of a moderne, increasingly independent, orbicular system of states and non-state actors. They question whether international law stops them from pursuing their self-interest (Damrosch etal 2001 p 14). In modern times, because of globalism, international law is a fundamental requirement for international transaction. In the last 100 years, account statement has shown us that the absence of such laws can have detrimental consequences on the entire world.The supply ju diciary has insisted on its right to unilaterally attack Iraq. To justify this end, the administration either ignored or handily reinterpreted UN articles or resolutions. It is no wonder that the vast majority of the international community did not support the Bush administrations conclusions. International opinion was that the attack on Iraq was illegal under the international laws of the UN. (http//www.123helpme.com/view.aspid=18686)The United States has clearly define their unusual po... Foreign PolicyThe United States has clearly defined their immaterial policys objectives and goals. While some groups take away that the United States acts as an isolationist body, the government works to improve the international community through dialog and cooperation The United States maintains relations with nearly every nation state in the international system. The US also conducts frequent relations with many international organizations for a lot of different reasonsWhile the United S tates has hundreds of goals and objectives of the foreign policy, its most important goals currently are internationalism and multilateralism, national security, and limiting weapons of mass destruction (Walter 2001 p 2). A divided government within the United States sometimes makes it difficult to create clear strategies both domestically and internationally, nevertheless both groups are willing to compromise in order to deal efficaciously with any problemsTraditional and current foreign policy objectives determine current relationships between the United States and opposite countries and various international actors. Traditional objectives of international security and trade have always shaped relations in the international system. Today, issues of terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, and Middle East peace also help shape relationships with the US abroad. The current policy objectives shape US international relations.Foreign policy activity and the decision do process have t wo driving motivations- an external, and a domestic or internal. The external motivation includes foreign activities, politics and policies that have an effect on US foreign policy. For example, external threats such as the Cuban Missile Crisis during the Cold War,

Enginering Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enginering Science - Essay spokespersonA. overcharge Diagram B. Moment DiagramC. Maximum Bending Moment = 80 kN.m2. A precisely supported circulate of length 10M has a concentrated load of 30kN 3m from the left hand end and other concentrated load of 50kN 3m from the right hand end. P1a. Draw the shear force diagram.b. Draw the bending indorsement diagramc. Determine the maximum bending moment in the beam.d. Determine the maximum shear force.A. Shear DiagramB. Moment DiagramC. Maximum Bending Moment = 132 kN.mD. Maximum Shear Force = 44 kN3. The maximum bending moment a beam can sustain is 175 x 10 6 Nmm. If the maximum stress in tension or compression is 165 N/mm2 betoken an appropriate section beam from the table in the appendix P2Given M = 175 x 10 6 Nmm f = 165 N/mm2SolutionSection Modulus, Z = M / fZ = 175 x 10 6 / 165 = 1060606.061 mm3 = 1060.61 cm3The lightest section with Z 1060.61 is the I beam 406 x 178 with Z = 1186 cm34. A steel column is required to support a loa d with a slenderness ratio of less than 100. If the column is fixed at both ends and is 3m long, suggest a fitting section from the table in the appendix. P2Effective length factor, k = 0.5 for fixed columnsL = 300 cm Since kL/r

English Language Learners Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

slope Language Learners - Research Paper ExampleThis essay discusses that when one viewed the wealthiness of materials regarding the topic side of meat Language Learners from the online search medium, one would be awed at the magnanimity of results amounting to much than 16 million in various developmental categories. The fact signifies the extensive interest on the topic manifested by an array of practitioners and users, especially in the field of education. This area of education would thereby be more explored in the current research to proffer pertinent details that led to the development and continued focus on English Language Learners (EELs) in the contemporary academic setting. This area is chosen to enhance ones awareness on the subject of interest and thereby enable one to share the knowledge, including crucial information to assist and guide separate ELLs that one would potentially interact with in the near future, specifically in terms of improving learning outcomes. The discourse would initially present the definition of key terms, evolution, historical development and continued growth within this area of academic discipline. Likewise, one would determine current legislation that shapes it in contemporary times in conjunction with expounding on the best practices related to curriculum and control utilized in English as the Second Language (ESL) setting. In addition, one would also key and describe specific technological applications and future trends that influence and affect English Language Learners (ELLs). ... 1). On the other hand, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) differentiated analogous terms such as ELL, ESL (English as Second Language), LEP (Limited English Proficiency) and EFL (English as Foreign Lanuage), as summarized in Table 1 below Table 1 Definitions of aboriginal Terms KEY TERMS DEFINITIONS ELL (English Language Learner) an active learner of the English language who may clear from various types of language support course of studys. This term is used mainly in the U.S. to describe K12 students. ESL (English as a Second Language) formerly used to designate ELL students this term increasingly refers to a program of affirmation designed to support the ELL. It is still used to refer to multilingual students in higher education. LEP (Limited English Proficiency) employed by the U.S. Department of Education to refer to ELLs who lack sufficient mastery of English to stand state standards and excel in an English- language classroom. Increasingly, English Language Learner (ELL) is used to describe this population, because it highlights learning, preferably than suggesting that non-native-English-speaking students are deficient. EFL (English as a Foreign Language)Studentsnonnative- English-speaking students who are learning English in a country where English is not the primary language. Source (National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), 2008, p. 2) Historical Development The origin of instruction to ELL was actually traced as early as the 1600s and 1700s when some states were reported to establish private and public schools with bilingualist education regulations during the European colonization of the United States

Georgia o'keeffe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Georgia okeeffe - stress Examplee flower paintings such as Red Poppy in 1927, White Trumpet vertex in 1932, and Red Amarylis in 1937 among others are definitely inspired by nature and carry on with them, a meaning of feminity, life, peace and harmony (Coe, 2014). Most of the seemingly large flowers depict a robust feminine nature, which Okeeffe was well known for.M.C. Escher on the other hand was a Dutch contrivance icon for many years. Eschers paintings represent a tremendous maturity of artwork with his earlier artworks generally being sketches on plain landscapes. For example, Still Life and Street in 1937, represents one of his earlier wood engraving sketches (M.C. Escher, 2015). However, as he went along with life, he gained interest in geometry art. Arguably, Circle Limit III in 1959, Still Life with Spherical Mirror, in 1934, and Snakes in 1969 represents a symmetrical congruence inspired by geometry, life, and nature (M.C. Escher Documentary 2013). Agreeably, Eschers last artworks such as Small Stellated Dodecahedron represents the mind of an artist ushering in 21st century modernity. Eschers artwork depict nature inspired by

History of Personal Loss Essay Example for Free

History of Personal Loss EssayIt is of all timemore not easy to hear that a person died and it is sincerely hard to accept if a family constituent passed away. The first last that I provide remember and that affected me was the termination of my aunt, my renders sister. I was still 12 years old at that succession when it happened. I was not that close to her barely a month before she died, we communicated often and she even asked permission to my father for me to spend my summer with her solely my father declined. When we had the chance to spend time together years back, she spoiled me with toys and clothes, thus she became my favorite aunt. Her death came as a shock to all of us.She had a motorcycle accident. Upon hearing the news, I could not imagine my ears. My father and I flew immediately to their place and there I truism her remains. It was horror for me. She was such a healthy woman and it terrified me see her inside the coffin. My heart was crushed when I sa w my father cried. It was my first time to see him cry. That was also the first ever funeral service that I attended to. When it was time to send her to her last resting place, we followed her wake by foot and during that long walk most all the cars that passed us by threw coins at us. My cousins explained that its a way of showing their sympathy to us.I really undersidet close up that experience because my cousins and I was so busy picking up the coins and it made me forget my sorrow. As Goodman (2000) has discussed, it is not unusual that people faced with sudden death experience absent grief and the initial reception to the news is usually disbelief and shock. The most recent death in our family was the death of my aunt Elsa. She had peptic ulcer disease which esca after-hoursd to carcinoma. We found out about her illness about a year ago and the progression of the disease was really speedy and none of us was ready for her rapid deterioration. After she died, I still cant believe that shes gone.Every time I visit her working place, I still expect to hear her voice greet me and ask me what I want and how Im doing. Its really painful not to hear her voice ever again and not seeing her doing what she does best, taking billing of the tolerants in the community. As very much as possible, I try to avoid going to her once office because even up to now, I dont want to be reminded that shes gone forever. Goodman (2000) also pointed out that a grieving person may experience a feeling that the person is still musical accompaniment. Even though, Aunt Elsas death was really painful, the most painful death that I ever had was the death of my little brother.He had a inborn heart disease, specifically tetralogy of fallot. Ever since he came into our lives, I didnt treat him as fragile as he should have been because for me, he is a strong individual and that he can surpass every(prenominal) heart attack he had. Going to the hospital was a normal thing for me, since he was dingy most of the time. When he was eight years old, upon arriving from school, I was informed that he was again admitted. I was very nonchalant about it but when I found out that he was in the intensive care unit that was the first time I felt fear for his health. When I entered the ICU, my heart just died upon seeing my brother.There were so many tubes inserted in his body and the respirator and cardiac monitor was really acquiring to my nerves. I attempt to wake him up but he wont respond. I tried not to cry I tried to be strong for him but the mere act of intercommunicate was very difficult for me. I want to tell him how much I dearest him but I cant speak. I dont want him to hear my trembling voice and lend away my emotion. It was very difficult because I know his time is running out and I cant even tell him how much I do love him. The day after, I had to go to school but I wanted to stop by the hospital however, I was running late so I decided against it.Afte r school, I went directly to the hospital, but the ICU nurse verbalise that he died 900 A. M. that day. I couldnt believe my ears and I went home shocked. It was only when I saw him there, lying in the coffin that I believed that he already left. He left without me telling him how much I do love him. He left me. My brothers death made me elucidate that anybody that I love can leave me without any notice, anytime. Now, I fear of being left by my parents. They are all that I have and I cant stand a vox populi of them leaving me for good, forever. Theyre both old and I know their time in our world is almost up.I try to have myself ready for that dreadful day. I think, based on experience, my initial reaction would be disbelief then followed by numbness, which can last for several days. The numbness would then make grow into anger. I know I will be angry to myself for not being a lovable daughter that I should have been and anger because they left me all alone. The stages of grief that are discussed by smith (2009) are denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. One lesson that my parents taught me after my brother passed away was life goes on.People we care for and love do come and go but we continue to live. We should accept what we have or dont and try to live life the way we should have. I believe that one can never forget ones loss but he can only get apply to living without the person. Thus, I know I have resolved my grief when I am already used to have a life empty of my loved ones absence. This topic is so cranky for me so I think it is appropriate for me to share my own experiences of grief with a client/ patient if it could give the patient assurance that after the heartache, he still can have a life.ReferencesSmith, M. , Jaffe, E. , Segal, J. (2009). cope with Grief and Loss Support for grieving and bereavement. Retrieved May 11, 2010 from http//helpguide. org/mental/grief_loss. htm Goodman, R. F. , (2000). Coping with grief after a sudden death. Retreived May 11, 2010 from http//virginiatech. healthandperformancesolutions. net/Tech%20Trauma%20Articles/Articles/Coping%20With%20Grief%20After%20a%20Sudden%20Death. pdf

Business information and their sources Essay Example for Free

Business study and their sources EssayThis report aims to show the different forms of training used in HM. It leave tell us if we need to improve on any of our methods of communication, or if we need to raise any methods we use.Internal randomness is when it give the bounce be found from inside the business, such as front sales records. External information is when the information needs to be found from outside the company, for example in books or customer feedback forms. Primary information is when you fuck off received the information fist hand, either through and through a report or through surveys. We need internal information for evidence so zero is mis interpreted within the business. Internal information potbelly be previous records, we need these to write reports and to book sure the business isnt at a loss. HM need outer information to proctor parvenue trends so we can stay ahead of fashion. We do this by getting our internal and outside(a) customers to c omplete questionnaires.It is important that we do this so our customers always stay interested in the clothes that we have on offer so we do not lose any business. Combining internal and external information is very effective because your ideas can be expanded by utilize existing ideas only with our consume unique twist. So we can take an existing idea on a costume range, but then add something to it based on the feedback and ideas we get from our customers. Internal information can be more important for HM than external information because it includes private details and information of the company that cannot be found anywhere else.This would be unavoidable if we were to start a sale because wed have to slam what products are not selling well to put them in the sale. However, external information can be seen as more important that internal information because it includes new information from customer feedback. This is much needed because it would athletic supporter our busin ess form fresh ideas and to help us move forward. Internal information cannot help us do this.HM need patriarchal information to help the business run fast and gain newideas. We can do this by getting surveys from the public to get more ideas on things we can sell or do in store. Primary information is very useful because it can be used for a lot of different things, for example customer service or new clothing ranges. Also it is usu on the wholey very accredited because you have created it. Secondary information can too be used to gain new ideas.We can use secondary information to do this because the information has already been created so we could just expand on the information to make it unique and our own. A conspiracy of primary and secondary information is important because it means that we can reminder our own records and also monitor our competitors records so that we can always try to stay on slip by. Primary can be more important than secondary information because w e are actually creating the informatio9n so it is 100% reliable whereas secondary information is not always be reliable because it was created by an unknown source.Verbal information is when it can be spoken, for example a phone call. In our company, we give communicative information to our stave and customers. We verbally give information to our staff because it is quick and easy. Written information is write down to eradicate information, for example a letter or email. We use write information to communicate because it can be used as confirmation and it is harder to be forgotten if you have it written down. We also give written confirmation to our customers all the time, for example receipts. We do this so at that place is proof of purchase and there is no mis understanding between the business and the customers. Multimedia can be shown through moving adverts or audio. It is a very effective way to present information because it engages the reader a lot more than a bit of wri ting on a piece of paper.We use multimedia in different ways, for example, on our website there are videos of our products being modelled and shown on the catwalk. We use multimedia in this way so our customers will stay engaged and will be more interested in our products if they see them on top models. Using a combination of verbal and written information is more effective than just using either one of them. Having a staff meeting is quick, easy and usually there isnt any miscommunication. To guarantee that there has been no mis communication, you can send an email after the meeting has taken hindquarters just too highlight was said in the meeting.Verbal information issometimes better than written information because if we needed to pass information on to our team, having a meeting where we could easily speak to them all at once is more appropriate than using written information by sending an email or letter where there could be mis-communication. Written information can be bette r than verbal information when for example we needed to confirm a purchase with a customer. We would need to give them a type of written confirmation because if the sale was done verbally, information could easily be forgotten or mis-communication could occur.To conclude I am going to summarise this report. The way we use internal and external information is very successful because HM uses original ideas combined with ideas from customer feedback to improve the way the company functions. How primary and secondary information is used in the company is also successful. This is due to us using our own reliable information (primary) and comparing it to our competitors information (secondary) to monitor whether we are currently fashionable or not. Verbal and written information is the most effective way of transferring information within HM. This is because there is a very small chance of mis-communication if verbal and written information is given properly. To fully conclude, HM are tr ansferring information successfully in all different ways.

MRF Madras Rubber Factory Essay Example for Free

MRF Madras Rubber Factory EssaySolutions and Services instruction execution Highlights Time-frame 9 months, strict adherence to time-schedules Top Managements support Highly dedicated team Comprehensive mixed bag management run through ERP success story MRF Limited MRF Limited is engaged in the manufacturing, distribution and deal of an extensive ange of superior quality tyres for various kinds of vehicles. The attach tos operations relate to manufacture of rubber products, such as tyres, of applications. MRF has six production facilities in India and around 80 sales offices. From its humble origins in 1946, the company has recognise a long way to become the market leader in the tyre manufacturing industry. MRF exports its products to over 75 countries worldwide.Today, global tyre manufacturers have to plan and adapt to changes in customer demand, fluctuations in raw corporeal prices and availability, while supporting pace with timelines for shipments in the face of incre asing ompetition in the global marketplace. The Need for black flag Before becoming an gull customer, MRF was running several outmoded legacy systems that could no longer keep up with the companys expanding operations, and, as a result, the company was plagued with inefficiency. Problems of slow availability of information, tedious manual entry and information transfer, lack of system flexibility, excess manpower utilization and costs started to have a negative violation on the billet. Consequently, the company was spending a lot of time in consolidating the information, getting the data together, and on time.It did not take long for MRF to know that it had to replace its nonintegrated, independent systems if it wanted to gain strategic discernment and higher productivity to manage rapid business growth. The company wanted a flexible etymon to allow IT to keep pace with changes while offering a low total cost of ownership. MRF refractory to reengineer its entire IT landscape by implementing scan ERP and SAP CRM solutions, based on the SAP NetWeaver platform. A issue Team called the Power Users team was formed to determine the requirements of the company and the selection of a suitable ERP olution. MRF brought in IBM Global to facilitate the process and the Core Team was sensitized to the process of reengineering.The company did a small evaluation based on various criteria such as experience in the manufacturing sector and product-offerings oracle and SAP were short listed. MRF participated in a SAP summit which helped the company to take the final decision. SAP came out on top in terms of product superiority, post-sales support, and record customer satisfaction. We were confident that SAP will support our plans for continued growth, says Prince Azariah, Chief Information Officer, MRF Limited. SAP offered a clear solution for MRFs manufacturing operations which include process as well as discrete production. We have moved onto a progress product wi th SAP. We have made a very good decision in selecting SAP, adds Sathya Gautham, Manager IT Services.slaying MRF chose Siemens Information Systems as the carrying into action partner after a thorough selection process. The bulge out went live on December 1, 2007. There were around 60 members from MRF and 35-40 members from Siemens involved in the implementation process. The core team nd the partners team worked in full collaboration, while ensuring that the implementation was carried out correspond to time schedules. One of the complications was that our systems were in silos. Change management has been a big challenge, says Gautham. There were many instances when MRF looked to SAP India and SAP Labs for assistance and support during the implementation. SAP ERP has been implemented at the companys Head Office in Chennai, 6 factories in Sales Offices.MRF went in for all core modules including Financials and Controlling (FICO), Sales Distribution (SD), Materials Management (MM), exertion Planning PP), Quality Management (QM), Plant Maintenance (PM), Human Resources (HR), and SAP NetWeaver Business Intelligence (SAP NetWeaver 81). Today, there are around 700 users who have accepted the implementation in a positive manner. Benefits With SAP ERP, the company has one harmonized, standardized and integrated solution. The solution has enabled MRF to transform its business operation management from time eat and inflexible to real-time and adaptable. The users can now count on easy access to accurate, complete, and up-to-the minute information, give thanks to entralized, integrated data. This has led to quicker decision making and improved business transactions for MRF. SAP is the outdo thing that has happened to MRF, Sathya Gautham, Manager IT Services The implementation of SAP has brought in a major shift in the work-culture in the company. The core team was clearly aware that they are responsible for creating their future. Earlier, we were a top-driven compa ny. Now, we have closedown to 60 personnel at the middle management level who have been empowered to take business decisions, and who are advising top management on what needs to be done o set up processes in the company. There is so much of enthusiasm among the core team members and the end-users. Also, we used to be a very silo-ed company. With SAP, the Heads of different Departments look to these people for resolution of problems.

Bicycle and Modern Industrial Methods Essay Example for Free

Bicycle and new Industrial Methods EssayA bicycle, often called a bike (and sometimes referred to as a pushbike, treadle bike, pedal cycle,or cycle), is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist. Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe and now number more than than a billion worldwide, twice as many as automobiles. They are the principal means of raptus in many regions.They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for expend as childrens toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services, and bicycle racing. The basic shape and configuration of a typical upright, or safety bicycle, has changed little since the rootage chain-driven model was developed around 1885. But many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling.The bicycles finesse has had an enormous effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. Several components that eventually played a key role in the development of the automobile were invented for the bicycle, including formal bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets, and tension-spoked wheels. The dandy horse, also called Draisienne or laufmaschine, was the first human means of transport to use lonesome(prenominal) two wheels in tandem and was invented by the German Baron Karl von Drais.It is regarded as the modern bicycles forerunner Drais introduced it to the macrocosm inMannheim in summer 1817 and in Paris in 1818. Its rider sat astride a woody frame supported by two in-line wheels and pushed the vehicle along with his/her feet while steering the precedent wheel. The first mechanically-propelled, two-wheeled vehicle may have been built by Kirkpatrick MacMi llan, a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839, although the fill is often disputed In the early 1860s, Frenchmen Pierre Michauxand Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a new direction by adding a mechanical crank drive with pedals on an enlarged front wheel (thevelocipede).Further innovations increased comfort and ushered in a second bicycle craze, the 1890s well-heeled Age of Bicycles. In 1888, Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop introduced the first practical pneumatic tire, which soon became universal. Soon after, the rear blow was developed, enabling the rider to coast.

Human Resource Case Study Essay Example for Free

Human Resource Case Study screen1. I think his request is reasonable. Nancy should imbibe the beat to address Marks request to bewilder an appropriate structure to deal with the growth of both companies. She will be able to present the thinkable strategies to oercome a shortage of employees. As well, she can discuss reasons why Family Distri justion has experienced such(prenominal) a drastic f each(prenominal)out of staff over the past two years. Another topic she should dumbfound clip to research atomic number 18 the complaints active the hiring practices at Family Manufacturing, whether they have genuine merit, and if so, what can be through with(p) to correct the situation. She should also be able to address the concerns of the vice presidents of both companies. .2. I would not recommend one comprehensive object for both companies because they argon both experiencing different challenges that make separate action plans. Family medical exam Distribution is making far less profit than it did at its heyday in 1989 and has had to evolve into a specialty distributor of high end supplies just to stay afloat. Family Medical Manufacturing, on the other hand, is continuously exceeding its growth and profit projections yearly. They have the potential to grow the phoner even further but do not currently have the human resources to do so. .3. surface-to-air missile is a person who has been with the club for quite a long time. He has served in various positions and go his way up the ranks, so he would have a good understanding about how the short letter is run. I think that Nancy should befriend him to understand his point of view and unique insights on how the company has evolved over time. . I think that Sam understands that a plan needs to be implemented to turn the company around. He has spent time and resources trying to evaluate his marketing department, sales, and operations. Hes even denotative that the staff need to work smarter not hard er, but has given no specific direction on what could be done to make this a reality. His skepticism towards the value of HR seems to be based on the results of a department that has been running without a manager for the past 13 months.Even though the HR associate, Claire Jackson, has done a great job trying to keep things afloat, she simply does not have the time or expertise to run the holy department by herself. His judicial decision of the results is fair in the grit that HR is not particularly useful in its current incarnation, but he doesnt seem to have the insight to understand how much it could accomplish if it were running smoothly with competent leadership. . Nancy should explain to Sam that the topper way to make the company more efficient and to work smarter is by appreciating how important a structured, cover working environment is to deal. In order to make the company more profitable, she needs to convince him that the or so important thing to do right now is to sort out how best to utilize people to achieve quality performance while at the same time promoting a business plan that will encourage growth. .4. One glaring challenge is that t here(predicate) ar four past complaints about hiring practices. Trust among the employees for the hiring process has been diminished, and the damage has already been done. Even though Mark Olsen seems to understand the importance of a strategic HR program, he has made some critical mistakes and shown a lapse in judgment in three ways. . Firstly, he has shown a bias in hiring people from his former employer in all cases of dress complaints made against the company. It is doubtful that the interview and selection process for these positions was done in a fair, apathetic manner. .Secondly, he has ignored the resources he already had at his disposal by hiring employees externally. In all formal complaints the employees had the education and training do the job they were applying for. Most people want a sen se of map and accomplishment from their careers, and ignoring that basic desire will only create discontent among the workforce. . Finally, he disregarded and dis regarded the entire hiring process by promising a position to someone before the opening had even been posted. In my opinion, this type of favoritism is one of the fastest ways to demoralize people. . At the upcoming meeting for Nancys presentation of her human resource plans, she needs to address these mistakes and explain to Mark how important it is to follow procedure, respect the hiring process, and moreover to respect his own employees. .2. When Nancy presents her plan, she needs to explain the different challenges that both companies are dealing with. There are pressures and opportunities to be found in both cases. Family Medical Distribution is a well respected company but has undergone significant downsizing due to government cutbacks. The opportunity here is to create an efficient supplementary business that will complement its manufacturing counterpart. Family Medical Manufacturing has plenty of room to grow, but not enough qualified personnel to help develop its upcoming products. . Next, she should state what goals of the company are to get clear about where they want to be in a five year time frame and what it will take to get there. Mark has said that his goal is to enter the home care for market, so the plan needs to account for what needs to be done to achieve this goal from a HR perspective. .I think the most important issue that both companies need help with is in utilizing the talents and skills of their workforce in a way that compliments the needs of both divisions. The best solution is to make both companies as one working unit from a HR standpoint. The deficiencies in staffing at Manufacturing could feasibly be satisfied by transferring the appropriate staff from Distribution. This would be an elegant way of taking care of the staffing needs of both companies while at the sa me time improving employee relations with upper management, an important low step in regaining a sense of trust and security. Nancy should also suggest that some of the bills and employee benefits invested in Manufacturings new facility be put into effect at Distributions plant. Its important to show genuine equality to employees and this would help to impart the understanding that both businesses are important for continued success.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the Military Essay Example for Free

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the Military Es verbaliseI. AbstractStoked by an adversarial media and the run-up to Presidential elections next year, the trauma afflicting our body politic often seems to a neater extent important than the deaths, somatic dis ablement and post-trauma sieve inconvenience unmatchednessself that afflict assistancemen on the frontlines.In this paper, I review the historical origins and roll the preponderance of what was whimsic wholey called passs look in the Civil contend and disordered accomplish of the heart (DAH) or neurasthenia at the turn of the centimeury and has now gained cognizance as field of honor weariness or PSTD. The etiology is vast, since trash melody seems to provoke a great numerous an(prenominal) tangible, physiological and anxiety- associate disorders. Lastly, I investigate the treatment options. struggle is ever a violent business. If the North-South Civil fightf ar assaulted Ameri digests with unkn birth hazard counts and the violence of troths waged at the dawn of the industrial age, World war I traumatized the semipublic with the everlasting violence brought to bear in swears of breaking the stalemate that was the Western front. Poison gas, the machine gun, barbed wire, and massed weapon system bombardment sent casualty counts sky high. Besides the United States, 17 other(a) countries on both sides of the war to end all wars suffered no little than 5.7 million soldiers killed and a nonher 12.8 million wounded.Soldiers at the frontline were brutalized by the sheer violence of artillery bombardments, the random deaths these caused and the experience of seeing an unceasing number of their fellow soldiers slaughtered by gas or machine gun fire. It was then that the nervous condition runner barriered war neuroticism or neurasthenia manifested in great numbers. Eventually, the equivalent term sheath jounce came into wider use. contend stress receptions first came to the attention of the aesculapian establishment (psychiatry was in an embryonic stage then) in the second half of the baseball clubteenth century and early in the 20th when physicians came to recognize adverse reactions that had more to do with uphold pic to battle conditions than any physical injury. In retrospect, the Civil contend condition then termed soldiers heart was really a form of rubbish stress reaction.During the Boer state of war waged by the British in South Africa (1899-1902), due notice had already been given to either disordered action of the heart (DAH) or neurasthenia/shellshock. Retrospective analysis of British soldiers who had been pensioned off for these conditions (Jones, Vermaas, Beech, Palmer, et al. 2003) found no especially signifi whoremongert fight in mortality comp ared to comrades who filed for dis magnate owe to bullet or shrapnel wounds.The Russia-Japanese state of war of 1904 and 1905 gave Russian physicians their first describe pain ting to, and the opportunity to try and treat, nervous breakdowns owing to the stress of warfare, compounded by the demoralization of losing to the Japanese. by and by in the 20th century, the evolving nature of the battlefield and the competitor World War II, the Vietnam War, the Iraq and Afghan occupations existence the more prominent examples created unexpected new sources of stress that complicated the armed combat drudge syndrome and led to the broader post-traumatic stress disorder coming into wide use. So whereas combat bear referred to a intellectual disorder caused by the stress of active warfare, posttraumatic stress disorder revolved on post-combat fatigue, shock or neuroticism.V. Statement of the caperIn this research paper, we review the available authoritative sources to assessThe continuing prevalence of PSTD in the vary conditions of modern warfare.Short- and long-term therapy employed to resolve the disorder.The extent to which familial and community supp ort ameliorates PSTD and improves patient outlook.For a world that has experienced unremitting infringe since World War II, whether orthodox warfare, low-intensity conflict or insurgency, chances are that anticipating and providing therapy for stress disorders pass on be a continuing concern.VI. Literature ReviewA. The Character of Modern infringeIn the subsequentlymath of the Great War many people believed that they had seen the most terrible war the world testament ever see. History would prove them wrong. In the century that followed, war became fifty-fifty more traumatic and horrifying in its brutality. From the Russian civil war to the present conflict in Iraq, war took an ever-heavier price on the human psyche. Technology improved the methods by which death might be delivered but it has through nothing to strengthen the minds of those who had to bear it.The Russian civil war that succeeded until after World War I was a horror to behold. Thousands died in the fighting bet ween the White Russians and Red Russians. Thousands more froze in the spend for lack of appropriate gear. Worse, many civilians were murdered by both sides on mere suspicion of macrocosm col getators.World War II was a litany of affrights. Whole societies were brainwashed into supporting the war from an ideological standpoint. Millions of Jews were gassed and ruin in the holocaust simply being Jews. The SS, the KGB and the Kempetai would murder anyone at whim. Thousands of women were kidnapped and raped as comfort women by the Imperial Japanese Army.More than the individual or large-scale slaughter of men, the true horror of WWII was the paroxysm it inflicted on societies. Entire cities were razed to the ground in terror bombing. Cities became prison cells where starving denizens were forced to labor endlessly. Men went off to war leaving women to tend the factories and leaving no one to care for the children. and then at that place was the Atomic Bomb. A scant few pull ahead of thousands died. Both cities were leveled to the ground. The radioactive damaged would suffer for age. Even those who tried to help the victims were themselves victimized by the radiation.In Korea and Vietnam, millions were fielded in grueling civil wars. Korean fought against Korean backed by Communist and Imperialist masters. The same would be true for Vietnam but with the cellular inclusion of terrible chemical weapons that defoliated forests and would cause harm for generations to come. In turn, the Viet Cong and Khmer Rouge executed savage campaigns against their own people.The Arab-Israeli and Iraq-Iran wars would institutionalize child-soldiery. Israel had a scant 4 million citizens to oppose over 200 million Arabs. When attacked by the Arabs, Israel would be forced to deploy all its manpower, along with women, to help fight off the invaders. Chemical weapons were in addition used. The Israelites were left to defend their small nation against all their neighbors.Iraq an d Iran would field child soldiers in countless thousands. They would be given rifles then thrown into battle against hardened veterans in the hope of at least slow down down the enemy. Muslim killed each other over essentially religious disputes.But perhaps the polish off war of the 20th century would be the War on Terror. In the past the enemy was a particular country or group of countries. If they bomb our territory we can bomb theirs. But today, the enemy is not a nation. Today, servicemen in Iraq or Afghanistan do not know where or when the enemy will strike. All they know is that the enemy is out on that point lurking amongst a hostile population.The war on terror also has another unsavory aspect. The enemy resort to bombing civilian targets back home. Worse, the soldiers know that their victories will exactly make the enemy more desperate and make them retaliate more against innocent civilians.As if the violence of outright warfare and low-intensity conflict were not enou gh, American and British forces of occupation as strong as the soldiers of every nation that serve in U.N. peacekeeping forces confront at least personify prospects of PTSD. Whether in the Korean DMZ, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq, Afghanistan, Somalia, Lebanon, Ireland, or Timor, every soldier on such assignments faces a mountain of perils.In many cases, peacekeeping forces are in a low-intensity-conflict situation but hampered by rules of date that deny them the right to shoot first and shrug it off as a mistake. The potential for battlefield fatigue climbs higher with alien cultures and religions, a seemingly ungrateful, resentful and even hostile native population, self-annihilation attacks, well-armed guerillas, booby traps, mortar and improvised missile attacks. Such occupying forces are also apt to lose the public relations war for being unable to stop factions from slaughtering each other such as happened in Iraq, Afghanistan, Israel, Lebanon, East Timor and Rwanda. And perhaps the unkindest cut of all is when their own countrys media deliberately distort the casualty count from fratricidal or genocidal conflict as having been caused by the occupying or peacekeeping forcesB. Incidence of Shell misfortune, PTSD and Precipitating EventsWhen shell shock came to be widely recognized in World War I, the initial hypothesis was that it was induced by an inordinate number of fatal casualties. In fact, about 10% of all military forces then engaged succumbed on the battlefield, double the rate in World War II (less than 5%, in great part because the wide availability of sulfanilamide averted more deaths from battlefield infection). ulterior came the realization that it was total casualty count that really mattered. Historical research shows that around 56% of soldiers on the Western Front were either killed or wounded. When every other fellow in ones platoon gets hit, fatally or not, it is no wonder that stress casualties were as numerous as battle casual ties.The term itself, shell shock reveals the ingrained belief that psychiatric casualties from the horrors of the battles of the Somme, Marne, Ypres, etc. had suffered concussion (physical trauma to the head or brain) from a close call with an exploding artillery shell. Nearly a decade elapsed before a British War Office Committee realized (Military History retainer, 2004) that battle exhaustion and other varieties of war neuroses accounted for a far greater proportion of cases than concussion did.Great Britain having entered the fray early, the numbers of servicemen struck with shell shock and assorted neuroses were significant.By 1939, some 120,000 British ex-servicemen had received final awards for primary psychiatric disability or were still drawing pensions about 15% of all pensioned disabilities and another 44,000 or so were acquire pensions for soldiers heart or Effort Syndrome. (Shephard, 2000)In the post-World War II era, the Vietnam war can be counted the most trauma tic for the U.S. military, not least because of the failure to achieve a clear-cut supremacy and the dissatisfaction of the American public with a war that dragged on so long. Since the fall of Saigon in 1975, estimates of the long-term relative incidence of post-Vietnam syndrome (now recognized as PTSD) among veterans varied from a high of 30% in 1989 and a slightly dishonor 21% in 1996 (Allis, 2005).The most authoritative review in recent years, by researchers from Columbia University and other institutions, suggested that the lower end of the range was the more realistic figure nearly 19 percent of Vietnam War veterans succumbed to PTSD as a direct result of military combat. In addition, The more strong the exposure to war zone stresses, the greater the likelihood of developing post-traumatic stress disorder and having it persist for many years, say Bruce P. Dohrenwend, an epidemiologist at Columbia University. (McKenna, 2006).Fast forward to the current occupation of Iraq. The Defense send offe section reports, based on a sample survey of over 1,600 Army soldiers and Marines, that around one-third (30 percent) of those who had been in intense combat were diagnosed with such mental wellness problems as PTSD and effect. Incidence appeared higher among soldiers deployed to Iraq at least double and for more than six months at a succession (Bookman, 2007). So harming is the occupation, according to an Army study, that one in six of close 1 million soldiers surged to Afghanistan and Iraq will very liable(predicate) be afflicted with PTSD (Allis, op. cit.).The reality turned out to be worsened. Even more appalling estimates of incidence were inform by what has to be the most thorough accounting of the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and conditions resembling chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), a survey by Kang, Natelson, Mahan, Lee, Murphy (2003) on the entire population of 15,000 gulf War and 15,000 non-Gulf-War veterans. nurture w as gathered in 1995-97.Gulf War veterans reported significantly higher incidence of PTSD (adjusted betting odds ratio = 3.1, 95% confidence detachment 2.7, 3.4) and CFS (adjusted odds ratio = 4.8, 95% confidence interval 3.9, 5.9). Furthermore, the prevalence of PTSD increased monotonically across six levels of deployment-related stress intensity (test for trend p 0.01).Back home, the Department of Veterans Affairs reported on an investigation of principally Persian Gulf War veterans (79%) who had availed of the National Referral plan (NRP) and visited war-related nausea and injury study centers meant for combat veterans with unexplained illnesses . Over the consequence from January 2002 to March 2004The more vernacular diagnoses were chronic fatigue syndrome (n = 23, 43%), neurotic depression (n = 21, 40%), and post-traumatic stress disorder (n = 20, 38%). Self-reported exposures related to weaponry environmental hazards, stressA small increase in mean SF-36V mental subdiv ision scores (2.8 points, p = 0.009) and use of rehabilitation therapies (1.6 additional visits, p = 0.018) followed the NRP referral (Lincoln, Helmer, Schneiderman, Li, et al. 2006).The political furor over U.S. deployment in the in-between East has led to permutations, including what Baker (2001) refers to as Gulf War Illness. The more combat exposure they had had, the greater the likelihood that veterans manifest depression, PTSD, fibromyalgia, anxiety, and strike ecumenically ridiculouser health-related quality of life.For the British, a more sanguine view about involvement in Iraq may explain a conclusion that deployment to that strife-torn scene of action does not necessarily lead to increased risk of PTSD. Simon Wessely of the Kings Centre for Military Health Research at Kings College London reports that there is no evidence of anything like an Iraq war syndrome and that British troops returning from deployment were no more likely than U.K.-based soldiers to succumb to PTSD, anxiety or depression (New Scientist, 2006). Wessely seemed heartened by the fact that PTSD casualties this time around were significantly lower than during the former, even less controversial Persian Gulf War of 1991.He also explained the advantage vis--vis incidence of around 20% for U.S. troops on three facts. First of all, British troops are more battle-hardened. Two-thirds of British troops have been in deployments elsewhere, compared with only 10 per cent of US troops. Secondly the US also uses more reservists (in the form of National Guard units) and has responsibility for the batter of the hostile combat zones. To an outside observer, the adversarial stance of the U.S. press and the softness of the American public to withstand sustained conflicts not amenable to success over a visible enemy also count as contributing factors.It would take an Englishman to look into the topic but tongue-in-cheek analysis by Ismail et al. (2000) of U.K. Gulf War veterans revealed tha t the chances of falling prey to PTSD are greater with lower rank (and, presumably, lower social status) and if one leaves the service.Some research has shown that, far from being a steady state or amenable to ageless remission, PTSD has a way of recurring with the re-occurrence of the original precipitating factors or other less specific pressures, such as with serious illness or the sudden lifestyle change of retirement. In Israel, reactivation is a constant possibility owing to the fact the nation is always in a state of war with recalcitrant enemies so this potential trigger has come under scrutiny (Nachshoni Singer, 2006). Case studies suggested that PTSD can recur even when the call to duty is for a family member.C. SymptomatologyIn World War I, shell shock was observed principally as nervous fatigue. The famous photograph (see Figure 1, above) of a patient manifesting the thousand-yard scan became the enduring image of intolerable combat stress glassy-eyed fatigue, slow re actions, indecisiveness, being detached from ones immediate surroundings, and a certain vagueness about that needed doing first.So great were the numbers afflicted and so vividly did the novel phenomenon manifest itself that even the popular press in the U.K. could accurately report the symptoms of battle traumaSomething was wrong. They put on civilian clothes again and looked to their mothers and wives very much like the new-fashioned men who had gone to business in the peaceful days before August 1914. But they had not come back the same men. Something had altered in them.They were subject to sudden moods, and queer tempers, fits of profound depression alternating with a restless desire for pleasure. Many were easily moved to passion where they lost nurse of themselves, many were bitter in their speech, violent in opinion, frightening. (Shephard, op. cit.)The unfortunate circumstance of decades of unending small-scale conflict and insurgency campaigns post-World War II have enab led military psychiatrists to more fully define three mark facets of combat neurosis and PTSD fatigue, psychosomatic manifestations and neurotic symptoms.Fatigue is the common denominator behind indecision and inability to concentrate, memory loss, constant waffling about priorities, little initiative, significantly slowed reaction time, seriously downgraded alertness and thought processes, pickings refuge in obsessing and nitpicking unimportant details, and, most telling of all, difficulty with even routine tasks.The element of neurosis crops up as fearfulness, anxiety, irritability, depression, confusion, paranoiac tendencies, fear of loss of swear, and self-destructive behavior such as depicted object abuse or suicide.Consequently, PTSD patients manifest the entire spectrum of somatically-induced disorders headaches, backaches, (see also Mayor, 2000) being constantly high-strung, shaking and tremors, sweating, sickness and vomiting, loss of appetite, abdominal distress, frequ ency of urination, urinary incontinence, palpitations, hyperventilation, dizziness, muscle and joint pain (see also Ricks, 1997), insomnia and other balance disorders. Barrett et al. (2002) found this psychosomatic explanation incomplete. In a telephone survey of 3,682 Gulf War veterans and mesh subjects of the same era, the authors revealed that Veterans screening positive for PTSD reported significantly more physical health symptoms and medical conditions than did veterans without PTSD. They were also more likely to rate their health status as fair or poor and to report lower levels of health-related quality of life.D. Long-term EffectsNo doubt, psychosomatic disorders are of a chip with another syndrome physicians like to point to chronic multisymptom illness (CMI). Building on earlier studies that demonstrated CMI being more common among veterans who deployed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in contrast with those who had never participated in that campaign, Blanchard, Eisen, Alper n, Karlinsky, Toomey, Reda, Murphy, Jackson and Kang (2006) prune out to assess the situation ten years after deployment and found that veterans were twice as likely to develop CMICross-sectional data collected from 1,061 deployed veterans and 1,128 nondeployed veterans examined between 1999 and 2001 were analyzed. CMI prevalence was 28.9% among deployed veterans and 15.8% among nondeployed veterans (odds ratio = 2.16, 95% confidence interval 1.61, 2.90).Blanchard et al. noted that those who did suffer from CMI had already been diagnosed for anxiety and depression unrelated to PTSD prior to 1991. Common CMI manifestations comprised bluff medical symptoms, metabolic and psychiatric disorders. And those afflicted were more likely to smoke, besides reporting distinctly middle-level quality of life.M Hotopf, Anthony S David, Lisa remove, Vasilis Nikalaou, et al. (2003) carried out one of the more comprehensive and authoritative studies of long-term effects, a two-stage cohort study on British soldiers who had deployed during the 1991 Persian Gulf War or on peacekeeping duties in Bosnia.The study relied on four instruments self reported fatigue measured on the Chalder fatigue scale psychological distress measured on the general health questionnaire, physical functioning and health perception on the SF-36 and a count of physical symptoms. Military personnel who had been deployed elsewhere served as control group.Table 1 Prevalence of Categorical Outcomes (value are percentages .95 CL unless otherwise indicated)GulfBosniaEra decimal point 1 peak 2Ratio* (new cases/ cured cases)Stage 1Stage 2Ratio* (new cases/recovered cases)Stage 1Stage 2Ratio* (new cases/recovered cases)Fatigue cases48.8 (45.4 to 52.2)43.4 (39.9 to 46.8)0.65 (0.45 to 0.85)29.0 (25.6 to 32.4)32.7 (28.6 to 36.8)1.21 (0.83 to 1.59)22.8 (20.0 to 25.6)22.0 (18.6 to 25.4)0.91 (0.56-1.26)Post-traumatic stress reaction cases12.4 (10.7 to 14.2)10.8 (9.1 to 12.5)0.73 (0.47 to 0.99)5.7 (4.0 to 7.4)6.0 (4. 2 to 7.8)1.07 (0.49 to 1.65)4.0 (2.6 to 5.3)6.6 (4.8 to 8.4)2.45 (0.88-4.02) command health questionnaire cases40.0 (36.8 to 43.2)37.1 (33.8 to 40.4)0.79 (0.59 to 1.00)29.2 (25.5 to 32.9)31.5 (27.4 to 35.6)1.25 (0.84 to 1.67)25.3 (21.7 to 28.9)23.8 (20.1 to 27.6)0.88 (0.56-1.20)Self reported Gulf war syndrome18.6 (16.2 to 21.1)15.8 (13.3 to 18.2)0.58 (0.25 to 0.90)All prevalence estimates are weighted for sampling.* Values of 1 indicate declining prevalence. Ratios are weighted for sampling.Gulf veterans evinced a higher prevalence of fatigue, post-traumatic stress reaction, self-reported Gulf War syndrome and general health compared to the other two cohorts. The difference is consistent throughout stages 1 and 2. However, the veterans in question did show some improvement on all four measures over time.Table 2 Scores (.95 CL) for Continuous Measures, by Cohort and StageGulfBosniaEraStage 1Stage 2DifferenceStage 1Stage 2DifferenceStage 1Stage 2DifferenceSF-36* physical function90.3 (88.3 to 91.3)88.7 (87.6 to 89.9)-1.6 (-2.5 to -0.7)95.4 (94.4 to 96.4)92.9 (91.6 to 94.1)-2.6 (-3.8 to -1.3)92.1 (90.6 to 93.6)90.8 (89.2 to 92.3)-1.3 (-2.7 to 0.1)SF-36* health perception65.8 (64.1 to 67.5)65.9 (64.2 to 67.6)0.1 (-1.2 to 1.4)76.2 (74.4 to 77.9)72.9 (71.0 to 74.8)-3.3 (-5.1 to -1.6)76.8 (75.0 to 78.6)74.4 (72.4 to 76.4)-2.4 (-4.2 to -0.6)General health questionnaire14.5 (14.1 to 14.9)14.2 (13.8 to 14.5)-0.3 (0.1, -0.6)13.1 (12.7 to 13.6)13.2 (12.7 to 13.7)0.1 (-0.4 to 0.6)12.4 (12.0 to 12.8)12.9 (12.5 to 13.3)0.5 (0.05 to 1.0)Fatigue17.8 (17.4 to 18.1)16.9 (16.5 to 17.2)-0.9 (-1.2 to -0.6)15.6 (15.2 to 16.0)15.3 (14.9 to 15.7)-0.3 (-0.7 to 0.2)14.7 (14.3 to 15.0)14.9 (14.5 to 15.3)0.2 (-0.2 to 0.6) complete symptoms11.0 (10.4 to 11.6)10.7 (10.1 to 11.3)-0.3 (-0.8 to 0.1)6.2 (5.6 to 6.8)7.9 (7.3 to 8.5)1.7 (1.2 to 2.3)5.3 (4.8 to 5.8)6.4 (5.8 to 7.0)1.1 (0.6 to 1.6)All scores are weighted for sampling.For SF-36 scores, negative differences in mean indicate a deter ioration in health. For other scales, negative scores indicate an improvement in health.* SF-36 scales range from 0-100, with higher scores indicating better health.Table 3- Incidence and Persistence of Outcomes. (Values presented with 0.95 CLs)IncidencePersistenceCohortRiskCrude odds ratioCorrected odds ratio*RiskCrude odds ratioCorrected odds ratio*General health questionnaire casesGulf20.2 (16.4 to 24.0)1.01.061.8 (57.3 to 66.3)1.01.0Bosnia21.2 (16.7 to 25.8)1.1 (0.7 to 1.5)0.9 (0.6 to 1.4)58.9 (51.9 to 65.8)0.9 (0.6 to 1.1)1.1 (0.7 to 1.6)Era15.4 (11.4 to 19.4)0.7 (0.5 to 1.1)0.7 (0.5 to 1.1)48.4 (41.0 to 55.9)0.8 (0.6 to 1.1)0.6 (0.4 to 0.8)Fatigue casesGulf18.8 (14.4 to 23.1)1.01.069.7 (66.4 to 73.0)1.01.0Bosnia19.8 (15.1 to 24.4)1.1 (0.7 to 1.6)0.9 (0.6 to 1.5)59.9 (54.2 to 65.6)0.6 (0.5 to 0.9)0.7 (0.5 to 1.0)Era11.2 (7.5 to 15.0)0.6 (0.3 to 0.9)0.5 (0.3 to 0.9)58.2 (53.1 to 63.4)0.6 (0.5 to 0.8)0.7 (0.5 to 0.9)Post-traumatic stress reaction casesGulf5.0 (3.6 to 6.4)1.01.051 .8 (44.8 to 58.9)1.01.0Bosnia4.0 (2.5 to 5.5)0.8 (0.5 to 1.3)0.8 (0.4 to 1.5)38.9 (24.3 to 53.3)0.6 (0.3 to 1.2)0.8 (0.4 to 1.8)Era4.6 (3.0 to 6.2)0.9 (0.6 to 1.5)0.9 (0.5 to 1.5)54.8 (37.8 to 71.9)1.1 (0.5 to 2.4)1.2 (0.6 to 2.7)* Controlled for demographic variables (age, sex, rank, marital status).Comparing scores for continuous measures, one sees that Gulf War veterans were less healthy at both stages of the longitudinal study, though they were stable as far as health perceptions were concerned and reported a statistically-significant, if slight, reduction in fatigue. One concedes that physical functioning declined for all three cohorts.Additionally, Gulf veterans were more likely to experience persistent fatigue compared with the Era and Bosnia cohorts, a finding that remained significant after controlling for potential confounders (P = 0.009).Overall, despite being less likely to manifest less fatigue (48.8% at stage 1, 43.4% at stage 2) and a lower prevalence of psychological distress (40.0% stage 1, 37.1% stage 2) over time, veterans of the Gulf War reported a decline in physical function on the SF-36 (90.3 stage 1, 88.7 stage 2). By all measures used, this group also attested to worse health indicators a higher incidence of illness and more persistent symptoms.Twelve years after helping smash the Iraqi incursion into Kuwait, the authors concluded, Gulf war veterans continue to experience symptoms that are substantially worse than would be expected in an equivalent cohort of military personnel. However, Gulf war veterans are not deteriorating and do not have a higher incidence of new illnesses (Hotopf et al., op. cit.)E. Treatment Recommendations and shell Practice1. World War ISince little is known about the methods Russians used to treat their shock casualties during the Russo-Japanese War, the noted English psychologist Charles Myers first University Lecturer in Cambridge (for the course Experimental Psychology) and appointed Consulting Psycholog ist to the Army in 1916 is generally credited with the first systematic effort to treat PTSD (Bartlett, 1937).While espousing the benefits of a agreeable environment, psychotherapeutic regimens and even hypnosis, Myers was very emphatic about the value of providing succor as promptly as possible. Key to his proposals, therefore, was the establishment of special centers and rest homes close to the frontlines.By Christmas 1916, two developments led to modifications of Myers preferred regimen. First, the British Adjutant General resisted physicians opinions that a soldier was a shock casualty and insisted on obtaining a hallmark from the victims commanding officer to the effect that the trauma was due to physical causes. This attitude was share by the eminent British neurologist Sir Gordon Morgan Holmes, CMG CBE FRS, who was put in charge of the very active northerly part of the front in December. Physicians reacted to the delays in committing victims to neurological centers by sen ding the men back to their units and goad their superiors to both monitor and engage with them.By 1917, therefore, treatment for not yet diagnosed nervous (NYDN) had evolved to embrace the so-called PIE principlesProximity treatment close to the front and within earshot of the fighting to convince the soldier there was nothing wrong with himImmediacy treat without delay and give equal priority with wounded casualties and, foresight assure all victims of their return to the front after due rest and recovery.Reviewing the CSR toll after the war, the British War Office saw fit to recommend treatment programs that includedPhysical therapy baths, application of buggy electric current (recall that medicine has advanced greatly in the eight decades since then), massage rest and general recuperationPsychotherapy emphasizing explanation, persuasion and suggestion and,Crafts and hobbiesHypnotherapy in selected cases for inducing deep sleep and evoking repressed memories.As a rule, the British view of the time was weighted toward returning the afflicted soldier to serviceable employment in civilian life. For the military establishment was gravely concerned about the battlefield dangers of patients who manifested severe anxiety neuroses, other neuroses that required confinement in a mental institution or well(p) treatment back in the U.K itself.Exhaustive research on combat stress reactions in the intervene years failed to prove conclusively that PIE-based programs were effective in forestalling PTSD (U.S. Dept of Veterans Affairs, n.d.). Hence, American Armed Forces are now more likely to be administered some variation of the BICEPS modelBrevityImmediacyCentrality or ContactExpectancyProximitySimplicity2. World War IIThe catastrophic experiences of World War I did not seem to adequately inform or pervasively improve Allied preparations as war clouds loomed in Europe. A generation had passed and British army doctors had generally served in France in the earlier conflict. Still, Shephard notes (op. cit.), they initially floundered about and it was not until 1942 that the first psychiatric hospital was even set up (for the then-beleaguered Middle East Force). When the time came to invade Normandy in June 1944, British army physicians quickly forsook the expectancy principle and routinely returned battle trauma patients home over the Channel.For their part, the Americans initially imposed rigid screening pressures for mental ability in the rush of patriotic fervor that followed Pearl Harbor. Soon enough, this was abandoned for having no validity. Too many who tested well succumbed to battlefield exhaustion. In late 1943, the U.S. military approved a plan to add a psychiatrist to the T.O. E. of every Army division shipping overseas but it was not implemented until March 1944, when the drive up the Italian boot was well underway.This late in the war, nonetheless, the consort made an important discovery camaraderie and unit cohesion were effec tive shields against exhaustion. This finding course enough placed a premium on strong, effective leadership.The Germans were more unequivocal in placing great reliance on the quality of the officer corps. In their view, the war neuroses that sapped the will of their fighting men was tantamount(predicate) to cowardice and deserved to be treated as such. Beginning in 1942, however, when the Allies started the counterattack and the Afrika Korps was stymied, hospitalizations owing to battlefield trauma became too numerous to ignore (Belenky, 1987).3. New approaches in the Post-War PeriodAmong other developments, the Israelis modify PIE procedures by heightening the degree of support administered but keeping therapeutic confinement short. That this works at all is testimony to a nation of citizen-soldiers who must keep the economy working while eternally staying on a war footing.F. Treatment Success RatesThere is some evidence that proximal treatment is successful Despite the dual st ress of fighting another occupying force, the Syrian Army, and Palestinian refugees, nine in ten CSR were reported fit to return to their units within three days but only 40% for those evacuated to a hospital ship cruising the eastern Mediterranean or back home (Gabriel, 1986). In turn, the U.S. Army claims in its manual Combat Stress Control in a Theater of trading operations a similar success rate for proximate treatment (85%) in the Korean War (U.S. Army, Combat Stress Control in a Theater of Operations, n.d.). However, neither source tracked the long-term mental health of these soldiers, precisely the context in which one would expect PTSD to manifest.A ray of hope is, however, cast by an authoritative Columbia University study (McKenna, op. cit.) suggesting that the majority of Vietnam war veterans spontaneously recovered from PTSD over time, frequently without having recourse to treatment from mental health professionals.VII. ConclusionsThis review of the literature affirms t hat the advent of combat stress went hand-in-hand with the advent of industrial-era weaponry (in the Civil War) and mechanized warfare in succeeding conflicts. PTSD has many manifestations, can recur without warning and is certainly debilitating.Even with the advent of psychotherapy, occupational therapy and tranquilizers, treatment centers still purvey variations on the BICEPS and PIE theoretical models, the latter developed by British physicians during World War I. There clay a great deal of uncertainty about the proximity component of the PIE model returning the soldier to combat after suffering CSR. It seems battlefront physicians take successful cure to mean being able to return warm bodies to the frontlines. Critics assert that re-exposure to combat is likely to aggravate matters in the future and perhaps even precipitate PTSD altogether. Though the longest available cohort study spanned just 10 years, there is no question now that PSTD has long-term effects.Future researc hers need to investigate more thoroughly the psychosocial, military, and environmental risk factors that stimulate onset or, on the other hand, recovery. One factor that bears investigation in-depth is the furbish up of victory or setbacks in a campaign.To the extent that high morale and good leadership have been shown to have a moderating or even protective effect, one wonders what are the effects of fighting for option (e.g. Israel), of community and country united behind a war effort (the Korean War, the Malayan emergency), of service in prior conflicts (the British SAS), of guilt and angst over being the globes last stay policeman, and of coping with feudal cultures whose people are just as willing to apply savage play against U.S. servicemen as against each other. At the very least, further research might seek to determine the impact of attainable victory in sharp contrast with the ennui and self-destructive impatience over protracted conflict that mark American discourse t oday.VIII. ReferencesAllis, S. Globe Staff (2005). Frontline examines wars psychological tollTHIRD Edition. Boston Globe, p .E.5.Baker, D. G. (2001). Diagnostic status and treatment recommendations for Persian Gulf War Veterans with multiple nonspecific symptoms.Military Medicine,166(11), 972-81.Barrett, D. H, Doebbeling, C. C., Schwartz, D. A, Voelker, M. D, et al.(2002). Postraumatic stress disorder and self-reported physical health status among S. military personnel serving during the Gulf War period A population-based study. Psychosomatics,43(3),195-205.Bartlett, F.C (1937). Cambridge, England, 1887-1937. American Journal of Psychology 50, 97-110.Belenky, G. (1987) Contemporary studies in combat psychiatry (Contributions in military studies). Westport, CT Greenwood Press.Blanchard, M.S. Eisen, S. A., Alpern, R. Karlinsky, J. Toomey, R., Reda, D. J. et. al. (2006). Chronic multisymptom illness complex in gulf war I veterans 10 years later. American Journal of Epidemiology,163(1) ,66-75.Bookman, J. (2007,May9). OUR OPINIONS War strains troops, U.S. credibilityMain Edition.The Atlanta Journal Constitution, A.14.Brits less fazed by iraq war.(2006,May). New Scientist,190(2552),7.FM8-51 Combat Stress Control in a Theater of Operatio ns US Army Publication.Ismail K., Blatchley N., Hotopf, M., Hull L., et al.(2000). Occupational risk factors for ill health in Gulf veterans of the United Kingdom.Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health,54(11),834-8.Lincoln, A. E., Helmer, D.A., Schneiderman, A. I., Li, M. et al. (2006). The war-related illness and injury study centers A resource for deployment-related health concerns. Military Medicine, 171(7), 577-85.Gabriel, R.A., Ed. (1986) Military Psychiatry.Hotopf, M., David, A.S., Hull, L., Nikalaou, V., et al. (2003) Gulf war illness-Better, worse, or just the same? A cohort study. British Medical Journal. (International edition). London Dec 13, 2003. Vol. 327, Iss. 7428 pg. 1370.Jones, E., Vermaas, R.H., Beech, C., Pa lmer, I. et al.(2003). Mortality and postcombat disorders U.K. veterans of the boer war and world war I.Military Medicine,168(5),414-8.Kang , H. K., Natelson, B. H., Mahan, C. M., Lee, K. Y., Murphy, F. M..(2003). Post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic fatigue syndrome-like illness among gulf war veterans A population-based survey of 30,000 veterans.American Journal of Epidemiology,157(2),141.Mayor, S. (1997). Gulf war research given go ahead.British Medical Journal,314(7074),95.Mckenna, Phil (2006). Stress syndrome affected one in five Vietnam veterans. (August 21) Boston Globe, C.3.Military History Companion (2004) The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford Oxford University Press.Nachshoni, T. Singer, Y. (2006). Reactivation of combat stress after a family members enlistment. Military Medicine, 171(12), 1211-4.Ricks, T. E. (1997). Many military officers say gulf war syndrome results from the stress of war, not chemicals. Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition), p. A14.Sh ephard, B (2000). A War of Nerves. Cambridge Cambridge UP.United States Department of Veterans Affairs Treating Survivors in the Acute Aftermath of Traumatic Events.