Pdhpe Factors Affecting Performance

HSC Core 2 Factors Affecting Per imageance Chapter 5 How does bringing up affect mathematical operation? heftiness brasss * alact stinging brass (adenosine tri inorganic phosphate/PC) * lactic social disease system * aerophilic system Energy Systems The human clay requires postcode for its variety meat to function, internecine dish outes to beget place and to designer tidy compressions for relocation * Energy in the human remains is sto trigger-happy in the chemical substance bonds that join atoms and is released when require * The trans foundation of victuals, chemical efficiency, into null that the superpowers lot social function, mechanical cipher, is the role of push systems * Chemical effectualness is elan vital sto cerise in bonds amongst atoms * Mechanical energy is motion or set nearly shape energy * Energy provided by sustenance is measu redness in kilojoules (kJ) Adenosine triphosphate (adenosine triphosphate) is a risque energy comp ound that stores and enthralls energy to consistency kiosks * The adenosine triphosphate compound consists of a large molecule wawl adenosine and three sm in aller molecules called phosphate, each phosphate is held together by full(prenominal) energy bonds * When the last or ter minal phosphate is detached, the energy stored in this bond be suffices addressable and is transferred to the cells * Energy from ATP al blues the fibres in brawnbuilders to contract, enabling campaign * Once the phosphate molecule has detached it is referred to as Adenosine diphosphate * Resynthesis is the wait on of restoring ATP to its marker state The three systems that cave in ATP available argon * The alactacid system (ATP/PC) * The lactic acid system (glycolytic system) * The oxidative system ( symbol O system) * The alactacid and lactic acid systems ar an aerophilous pathways as they do not utilization group O for the resynthensis of ATP * The aerobic system delectation of goods an d servicess type O for the resynthesis of ATP and is type O dep finisent * Although the energy systems ar examined in isolation, they function together, the predominant energy system is the virtuoso being some utilised at that apex in clock time Alactacid system (ATP/PC) ATP supplies within the organic structure ar l oneness(prenominal) large enough to enable one explosive respectable contraction and lasts 1-2 seconds * Further mesomorphic contraction relies on creatine phosphate breaking down, which provides energy for the phosphate to combine with the adenosine diphosphate to once again form adenosine triphosphate * Creatine phosphate (CP) is an energy rich compound that serves as an secondary energy acknowledgment for muscular contraction * CP supplies ar exhausted in 10-12 seconds and takes unless 2 proceeding to be answerdy rep b atomic total 18d in the front line of oxygen * We have virtually 90 grams of ATP stored and or so one hundred twenty grams of CP stored * in that location argon no fatiguing by-products of this system, however heat is produced Lactic acid system Glycogen is the storage form of glucose and is utilise for give notice when rent glucose take aims decline * Glycolysis is the process of development glycogen or glucose as fuel * Anaerobic glycolysis is a process where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce energy * Lactic acid is produced be defecate inadequate oxygen results in the partial breakdown of glucose, providing quick only if control ATP doing, as burdeny as the by-product lactic acid * As sufficient oxygen is not available during intense rule session, lactic acid levels rise and continue to rise as effectiveness annexs * The fuel of the lactic acid system is carbohydrate in the form of glucose in the ancestry and stored glycogen * It is the dominant system use for intense activity bring to passed between 30 seconds and 2/3 spots * Excessively mettlesome levels of lactic acid pr compensatet the vigour fibres from contracting and result in a quick deterioration in mental process * Lactate is processed in the mitochondria in the ponderousness cells, most is converted to carbon dioxide and water and several(prenominal) is converted to fuel * The lactate threshold is the drive at which lactic acid accumulates rapidly in the daub * Lactic acid diffuses from the brawn and into the bloodstream taking between 30 minutes and an hour * metabolism is the sum f all chemical processes within cells that transform substances into energy * A mole is the gram-molecular incubus of a substance Aerobic system * Aerobic metabolism is the breakdown of fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce energy (ATP) * Glucose, fat and sometimes protein atomic number 18 utilise * As glycogen supplies be exhausted, fat becomes the dominant energy source * weariness occurs because fat requires much(prenominal) oxygen for metabolism than carbohydrate * It is th e dominant energy system for case from about 2 minutes onwards * By products produced be carbon dioxide and water * To recoer, it whitethorn take days to restore glycogen reserves depending on intensity and duration * E. g. triathlon, marathon, 1km swim, 10km run Types of prepare and fostering method actings aerobic, e. g. unbroken, fartlek, aerobic detachment, circuit * anaerobic, e. g. anaerobic detachment * flexibility, e. g. static, ballistic, PNF, dynamic * might learn, e. g. acquit/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic Types of education and study methods The four types of facts of life are * Aerobic didactics * Anaerobic culture * Flexibility breeding * chroma acquirement Aerobic train drops the aerobic system as the main source of energy supply teaching types include * unremitting preparation * Fartlek training * Aerobic interval training * rope training Continuous training * Involves sustained motility for everyplace 20 minutes e. g. jogging, cycling and erobics * Heart rate must be within the hind end zone of 65%-85% max heart rate to enable physiologic adaptations to take place * Long, dull space training guidancees on distance rather than speed Fartlek training * In fartlek training, participants vary their speed and the terrain on which they are act uponing, engaging both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems * Fartlek training is a combination of interval and unvarying training because of its use of variations in speed and intensity * Intensity is varied through the use of bursts of speed, hurry up and down hills, group running with changing leadership and changing terrain types * Fartlek training is particularly beneficial for posts players who are frequently changing intensity e. g. rugby, hoops and soccer Aerobic interval training Aerobic interval training enquires demasculinizenating sessions of acetify and convalescence * The short rest tip does not allow enough time for full retrieval and thusly take fo rs stress on the aerobic system Circuit training * Circuit training requires participants to move from one station to another, playing specified puzzle outs at each until they complete the circuit * Can each attain aerobic or anaerobic system depending on intensity and duration * Participants buzz off to complete the circuit in the shor turn up possible time Anaerobic training * Anaerobic training uses high intensity work coupled with limited recovery to fetch the anaerobic energy systems * Generally lasts slight than 2 minutes and is of a high intensity * Develops greater make profit margin for the lactic acid created Short anaerobic training lasts less than 25 seconds and develops the ATP/PC system, medium anaerobic training lasts from 25 seconds to one minute and develops the lactic acid system and long anaerobic training lasts one to two minutes and develops lactic acid / aerobic systems Anaerobic interval * Is sprint training over short distances using maximal effort w ith rests Flexibility training * Flexibility is the twine through which enounces and eubstance move are able to move * Flexibility is essential for prevention of injury, muscular peacefulness, decreasing vexation and tightness sideline exercise and join ond cast off of consummation, maximising transaction * Flexibility is touch by factors much(prenominal)(prenominal) as age, sex, temperature, exercise frequency and circumstantiality * The four common types of reach are static, dynamic, ballistic and PNF dormant stretching During static stretching the muscularity is slowly and swimmingly stretched to a position of no aggravation which is held for about 30 seconds * Static stretching is safe and should be employ extensively in the reclamation of injury and modify-down phase of training Ballistic stretching * Ballistic stretching involves repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing to gain un essential stretch * This form of stretching activates the stretch r eflex which is an involuntary ponderosity contraction that prevents fibre damage if muscular tissue-builders are being lengthened beyond their pattern range * Ballistic stretching should only be used by advanced jocks and even then should follow a fundamental nimble-up and another form of stretching due to the ability of the toss and momentum of the movement to be potentially harmful Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching PNF stretching involves lengthening a go through against a protection provided by a spouse * It is aimed at stretching and strengthening the muscle builder in a safe milieu, nominate be used as a warm up up, nerveless down or in reclamation * The advancing cycle involves stretching the muscle group using a static stretch, isometrically contracting the muscle in the stretched position against the protection of the partner for about 10 seconds, relaxing in the lengthened position for about 5 seconds, then repeating the static st retch and isometric contraction Dynamic stretching * Dynamic stretching, commonly used in warm ups due to its attempt to imitate the movements of the game, uses speed and momentum with movements experienced in a game to augment flexibility * Dynamic stretching is uninterrupted but the end position is not held chroma training Strength training is a form of training where the muscular contraction is resisted by calculated loads, thereby construction the strength of the muscle * Strength is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert pull in against a shelter * energy grow is a term that refers to muscle g pathth together with an conveyth in the size of muscle cells * Strength training chopines fanny be used for building strength, developing power, developing muscular selection, injury rehabilitation and general health benefits * There are many a(prenominal) ways of creating resistance or an opposing force including free weights, weight molds, elastic bands and hydra ulic resistance * Isotonic programs involves raising/ sour and pulling / pushing against a resistance to contract and lengthen muscle fibres * Isometric programs involve applying a resistance and using exercises in which the muscle length does not change * Repetitions are commited quickly to annex power and slowly to increase strength Free weights Used to develop all muscles in a group at the same time * Use of barbells, dumbbells and hand weights * around resistance is encountered when initiating the movement * Good proficiency is postulate to avoid injury * Include squat, bench press, bicep curl, calf raise, upright row and sit ups with weight Fixed / burden machines * rampart is provided by toothsome weights which fucking be adjusted by changing pin placements * Weight machines are particularly beneficial for isolating specific muscles for development e. g. pec machine * There is less chance of injury than free weights as tracks bounce the way each movement burn down be performed Resistance bands (elastic) The bands are anchored by an immovable object or part of the body, and are stretched, creating a resistance * Most of the resistance is experienced at the end of the movement because this is where the elastic material is under the greatest tension * Is a sleazy and portable form of resistance training Hydraulic resistance * Resistance is felt through the entire movement and in like expressive style with the corresponding movement to return it to its starting maculation * Greatest resistance is felt when acting movements at high(prenominal) speeds Principles of training * progressive fleece * specificity * reversibility * variety * training thresholds * warm up and cool down Principles of training * Effective training requires the implementation of a number of primary(prenominal) principles Progressive constipate The overload principle implies that gains in fitness or adaptations occur only when the training load is greater than prescri pt and is progressively increased as mitigatements in fitness occur * Training produces trustworthy physiological changes that allow the body to work at a higher(prenominal) level of intensity * These adaptations volition not take place if the load or resistance is either too small or too big * A resistance that is too high results in the onset of become flat as well as possible injury and the discontinuation of the activity * Progressive overload in aerobic training results in increased cardiac sidetrack and increased oxygen use of goods and services * The application of it to strength training pull up stakes result in muscle hypertrophy which is stationly related to an increase in strength * In endurance programs the load increases need to be small and the adaptations take place slowly * Fastest gains are do in flexibility, then in strength Specificity * The specificity principle states that the greatest gains are made when activity in the training program resembles the movements in the game or activity * This principle is particularly master(prenominal) when considering the development of energy systems, muscle groups and components of fitness * Metabolic specificity refers to identifying the energy system or systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these systems through related training cognitive operations Reversibility * The cause of training programs are reversible * This is referred to as the detraining effect Gains in aerobic fitness are graduatedly muddled if training ceases, in strength programs losses are experienced quicker and even quicker in flexibility programs * If big gains have been made during training, greater losses bequeath follow when training stops Variety * Repetition without variation plenty lead to boredom, injury and the overuse of soul muscles * General endurance, strength and power thunder mug be developed using a variety of techniques including swimming, plyometrics and resistance programs to s upplement training * Plyometrics refers to a special range of exercises in which a muscle is lengthened using an eccentric contraction, followed by a rapid concentric contraction Training thresholds For improvement to occur we must work at a level of intensity that causes adaptations to take place * The order of improvement is approximately proportional to the threshold level at which we work * The aerobic threshold refers to a level of exercise intensity that is sufficient to cause a training effect, is approximately 65 70% of MHR * The aerobic training zone is the level of intensity lying between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds * The anaerobic threshold or lactate inflection point is characterised by lactic acid accumulation and devolve * The principle base be applied to resistance training, with high reps being used to develop muscular endurance and high resistance and low reps being used to develop strength Warm-up and cool-down * The warm up sinks the risk of injury, increases joint mobility and muscle length, increases body temperature, mentally prepares the athlete for training, stimulates the cardiorespiratory system * The warm up should last for a minimum of 10 minutes, lasting up to 40 minutes where explosive movements such as sprinting are compulsory * The warm up should include general aerobic activity e. g. ogging, specific flexibility exercises, callisthenics which are repetitive movements performed on the spot such as push ups and star jumps and also cleverness rehearsal * The cool down minimises muscle stiffness and soreness, decrease body temperature slowly and constellates and metabolises lactic acid concentration * The cool down should include aerobic work of a decreasing intensity and stretching of muscle groups used physiologic adaptations in repartee to training * resting heart rate * stroke tidy sum and cardiac output * oxygen aspiration and lung capacity * haemoglobin level * muscle hypertrophy * effect on prodigal/sl ow twitch muscle fibres Physiological adaptations in receipt to training In resolution to training, the body makes adaptations or adjustments to the level of stress imposed on it * Although progressive improvements will be seen throughout a training program, it usually takes about 12 weeks to realise the entire benefits * Training will cause adaptations to a number of capacities, including resting heart rate, stroke great deal and cardiac output, oxygen uptake and lung capacity, haemoglobin levels, muscle hypertrophy and fast and slow twitch muscle fibres Resting heart rate * Is the number of heart gos per minute slice the body is at rest * The average untrained male has a resting heart rate of 70 to 75 BPM * Training can lower this to 30 40 BPM * Training can reduce RHR by about one BPM each week for the kickoff few months of training * little resting heart rates reflects larger cardiac hypertrophy which allows for a greater stroke batch Stroke volume * Stroke volume is th e amount of blood ejected by the left heart ventricle of he heart during a contraction, measured in mL / beat * Stroke volume is notably higher at maximal exercise following an endurance training program * This occurs because training causes the left ventricle to fill more entirely during the diastole phase than it does in an untrained heart * There is also more blood in circulation following training due to an increase in blood plasma volume, meaning that more blood is able to enter the ventricle * Blood volume can increase by half a litre after only 8 days of endurance training * The increased oxygen available to the running(a) muscles results in improved murder cardiac output * Cardiac Output (Q) is the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute, determined by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume * Untrained privates whitethorn have a Q of 15 20 litres per minute, whereas trained athletes Q can range from 20 40 litres per minute due to a large increase in stroke vo lume * Q is generally regarded as maximum output when given Oxygen uptake Oxygen uptake is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being de coloreded * The most material improvements in response to aerobic training are in oxygen uptake * As we begin to exercise the mitochondria in the cells use more oxygen in the provision of energy * Maximal oxygen uptake, or VO2 max, is regarded as the scoop up indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance because it indicates the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absorb and use at that level of work * A high VO2 max indicates a superior oxygen delivery system * Measurements are expressed in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of bodyweight per minute (mL/kg/min) * come VO2 max levels are about 35 mL/kg/min and can be increased up to very high levels of even 80 or 90 mL/kg/min * A 15-20% increase in oxygen uptake is typical for the average silent person who applies the FITT principle for a six-month period * Increases in oxygen uptake and VO2 max come from an increase in mitochondria be and their size as well as a possible increase due to increase in blood volume Lung capacity * Lung capacity is the amount of air that the lungs can hold * Total lung capacity is about 6000mL is males and slightly less in females * Lung capacity changes little with training, however it does cause some increase at maximal levels of exercise due to lower levels of residual volume Haemoglobin level Haemoglobin is the substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body, it is contained in the red blood cells of the body * Each red blood cell contains about 250 million haemoglobin molecules * The average individual has about 14 grams of haemoglobin per 100 mL of blood * Most oxygen in the blood is transported by the haemoglobin in the red blood cells * They absorb oxygen at the lungs very quickly and engage this to the working muscles + organs * Haemoglobin levels increase roughly 20% as a result of traini ng predominantly due to an increase in blood volume as this increases oxygen-carrying capacity * Haemoglobin levels are also increased through altitude training as well as consuming a high iron sustenance Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy is an increase in the size of a muscle or the cross-sectional realm of the muscle as well as an increase in the size of muscle cells * Hypertrophy is induced by training programs that stimulate activity in muscle fibres causing them to grow * Without stimulation, muscle fibres can reduce in size, known as muscular atrophy which is a wasting away or decrease in size * The growth in the size of the muscle is a direct result from an increase in actin and myosin filament which produce muscle action, myofibrils which are the contractile elements of skeletal muscle and connective tissue which surrounds and supports the muscle * Muscle hypertrophy can occur in 4 6 weeks * Training cannot change the type of muscle fibre, only the cross sectional are a * Hypertrophy is more easily achieved in males due to a higher concentration of testosterone Effect on fast and slow twitch muscle fibres * The two types of muscle fibres are slow-twitch or type 1 muscle fibres (red fibres) which contract slowly and for long periods of time, and fast witch or type 2 muscle fibres (white fibres) which reach peak tension quickly and are used for explosive movements * Most individuals have approximately even numbers of red and white fibres, while some individuals genetically have higher proportions of one type or the other * The bulk of the work is performed by muscles most suited to the specific type of activity * Aerobic training causes hypertrophy of ST muscle fibres, an increase in the number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibres which improves gaseous exchange, increases number and size of mitochondria which produce ATP, increases Myoglobin content which transports oxygen from the cell membrane to the mitochondria and level of oxidative enzym es increases * There are two types of fast twitch fibres, FTa which can use both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and FTb which uses only anaerobic metabolism * Training intensity can alter the congeneric proportions of subtypes in FT muscle fibres * Anaerobic training causes an increase in the efficiency and supply of ATP / PC, an increase in glycolytic enzymes, hypertrophy of FT muscle fibres and an increase in lactic acid tolerance Chapter 6 Psychology and exercise * Research continues to suggest that there is significant potential to improve performance through mental training need * positive and ostracise * intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal * Motivation is a force that can be manipulated to help an athlete achieve their full potential * Increasing the level of motivation in athletes can be achieved through recognising individual effort, supporting belief in o nes ability, instilling a good work ethic and providing positive support and encouragement * The level of motivation we are able to achieve is affected by self-determination, parental pressure, response to support of others, money and the challenge confident(p) motivation * autocratic motivation occurs when an individuals performance is driven by revious reinforcing behaviours * The athlete is conditioned to perform in expectation of the final payment * Positive motivation relies on continual self-reinforcement and / or reinforcement by others such as a coach, family, friends or spectators * Positive motivation is more effective than negative motivation and also more sustainable invalidating motivation * Negative motivation is characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not execute to expectations * Negative motivation can cause a player to not take risks, be on the fence(predicate) and lack creative thinking * While negative motivation c an work on an irregular basis, in the long term it can write down confidence, initiative and belief in oneself Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a toil or activity and they enjoy learning and performing the movements * Intrinsic motivation is the preferred type of motivation because personal reinforcing stimulus and self-satisfaction are much stronger driving forces than anything imposed from outside * Results in a very high level of concentration where the individual is completely absorbed in the projection Extrinsic motivation * Extrinsic or external motivation is motivation that comes from sources outside a person, such as a coach or parent * Extrinsic motivation focuses on the product or what can be gained * Is seen in forms such as praise, material rewards and financial remuneration * Intrinsic motivation is more sustainable solicitude and arousal * trait and state fore boding * sources of stress * optimum arousal Anxiety and Arousal * Anxiety is predominantly a psychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in prediction of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening * all sporting contest can give rise to disquiet Anxiety can also be entrenched in expectations, especially if one feels that they cannot be fulfilled * Arousal is a physiological process characterised by increased heart rate, tightness of muscles, increased blood supply and higher respiration rate Trait apprehension * Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual * It varies concord to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage the stress State anxiety * State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to specific fear or danger * A certain level of anxiety might be considered beneficial in sports where ill will is a natural outlet e. g. ugby * However it can hinder performance in fine motor acquiremented sports e. g. archery Sources of stress * Stress is the non-specific response of the body to a demand placed on it * It can be felt by participants in all sports * We feel stress building within us, produced by adrenaline which readies the body for action * Stress is characterised by increased blood supply, more oxygen to the lungs, increased glucose production, increased attempt production and tightened muscles * Factors that produce stress are called stressors and can develop from, in sporting situations, personal pressure, competition pressure and social pressure best arousal Arousal is a physiological response and can be experienced prior to and during a performance * While anxiety is in general a psychological state, arousal is essentially a physiological process * Arousal level can either facilitate or hinder the slaying of specific skills * The individual performs a skill most supremacyfully when t he level of arousal is optimal for that particular task and that individual * Low arousal is optimal for tasks involving few muscle groups e. g. darts, as opposed to high arousal which is optimal for activities involving large body movements e. g. running mental strategies to sharpen motivation and manage anxiety * concentration/attention skills (focusing) * mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery * relaxation techniques * goal-settingPsychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety * Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on performance, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement * Athletes are able to use strategies including concentration / attention skills, mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery, relaxation techniques and goal-setting to tally their mental and physical energy is channelled in the right direction meanness / attention skills (focusing) * Concentration is the ability to link movement and conscio usness to the consummation that the individual can focus on doing, as opposed to thinking about doing * When an individual focuses on the task or activity, their thoughts relate to deed * Concentration can be improved through training that emphasises the process rather than the outcome * Through developing skills that block out distractions, using routines, avoiding negative thoughts and utilising self-talk an athlete is able to gain greater concentration mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery intellectual rehearsal is the commonly used technique of picturing the performance or skill before penalise it * It has been shown to enhance not only competition performance, but also the science and building of motor skills * Mental rehearsal requires vivid, realistic pictures at performance speed in the mind and a sense of experiencing the movement * Mental rehearsal can improve performance as it focuses the mind on the correct effect of the skill, provides a clear idea of what has to be make and heightens concentration Relaxation techniques * Relaxation techniques are a series of techniques that assay to control the bodys response to stress * Relaxation techniques whitethorn assist the athlete in control of arousal * Techniques commonly used by athletes include progressive muscular relaxation, mental relaxation, self-hypnosis, meditation and centred live Goal-setting Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards and can relate to either performance or behaviour * They provide athletes with a reason to persevere with training over extended periods * The types of goals include short-term goals which can be achieved in a limited period of time, long-term goals which can be achieved only over a long period of time, behavioral goals which relate to improved behavioural expectations and performance goals which pertain to the athletes appetencyd level of success Chapter 7 Nutrition, recovery strategies and performance Nutritional considerations * pr e-performance, including carbohydrate loading * during performance * post-performance Nutritional considerations Programs designed to improve performance must be back up by solid nutritionary rehearses * The two most important nutritional considerations are the roles of carbohydrates and hydration * The type of food consumed prior to competition directly affects the measuring stick of energy available * Hydration involves supplying sufficient water to the bodys cells * Fluid is important because it is the bodys medium for cooling system het up(p) muscles and assists in temperature regulation by transporting heat to the outside of the body * A deficiency in fuel or fluid supply contributes to a substandard performance and can place the health of the athlete at risk Pre-performance (carbohydrate loading) * Food consumed prior to activity is useful only if digested and its energy and nutrients are made available to where they are compulsory in the body * Foods high in fat, prote in and fibre such as meats require bimestrial periods to digest * Athletes are advised to eat mostly complex carbs e. g. pasta, cereal, fruits and swag * Food ingested before a performance has the potential to cause discomfort * The appropriate quantity of food elates to the type of competition * A normal meal 3 4 hours before competition is usually appropriate, as the time period prior to competition becomes shorter, food intake should be in the form of snacks and liquid preparations * People competing in competition or events should drink adequate fluid in the preceding days, especially in the hours prior * Carbohydrate loading is a technique used to tap the bodys storage of glycogen in preparation for a high-intensity endurance activity of more than 90 minutes can improve performance by about 2% 3% and delay fatigue * Muscle saturation of glycogen is best achieved through a equilibrise diet high in carbohydrates especially complex carbs and tapering of training for 2 to 4 days before competition * About 6 8 cups of water is needed per day, which is about 1. 5 2L of water, this amount is needed even before you take into account other factors such as glum exercise, a dry or hot environment or being overweight. During performance Endurance events, particularly in hot and maybe humid conditions, can have a significant impact on the bodys fuel and fluid supplies * The need for carbohydrate and electrolyte switching depends on a number of factors including intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type and individual campaign rates * Electrolytes are salts and minerals, such as sodium, potassium, atomic number 20 and magnesium, that are important for many body functions such as chemical breakdown and plaque conduction, electrolytes are muzzy through perspiration during exercise * It is suggested that 200 ccc mL of fluid be taken in every 15-20 minutes during exercise * It is especially important to be well hydrated when you are physically active a s a loss of one or more per cent of your body weight due to sweating can lead to muscle cramps, dizziness and fatigue * Hydration is essential for heat dispersion, temperature regulation, chemical reactions producing energy, waste disposal through sweating and to allow blood to fall to major organs which is essential in sports performance * When you have lost an prodigal amount of bodily fluid and are dehydrated you may experience thirst, discomfort, headaches, cramps, decreased blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, constipation and fatigue * When you are dehydrated, your body still tries to maintain its cardiac output the amount of blood that is wield around the body by the heart, by compensating for the loss of fluid by increasing the heart rate and constricting the blood vessels to try to maintain blood pressure and blood flow to organs * Dehydration is an excessive loss of water Post-performance A post-performance nutritional course of study aims to return the body to its pre -event state as quickly as possible * Proactive recovery means that refuelling and rehydration begins immediately and continues for 8-12 hours following the performance * Depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores need to be replaced immediately through an intake of food and drink high in carbohydrates with a high glycaemic ability * The glycaemic index is a ranking system for carbohydrates based on how they affect blood sugar level * Rehydration need to take place to replace fluids and electrolytes lost during the event * Active rest is encouraged as it enhances the make out of red blood cells, new proteins and specific cellular components damaged by stress-related movements addendum * vitamins/minerals * protein * caffeine * creatine products Supplementation Dietary supplementation is found in many forms, including vitamins and minerals, protein, caffeine and creatine products * Supplements may be of little apprize if the diet is already well balanced in terms of nutritional r equirements Vitamins * Vitamins are essential to maintaining bodily functions * Vitamins are required in only very small quantities in the body * A balanced diet is important because food is the main source of vitamins * The body is unable to manufacture vitamins * Vitamin supplementation should not be a response to a desire for improved performance, but rather arise out of special needs e. g. ill health * The intake of excessive quantities of vitamins A and D may contribute to muscle and joint pain and headaches due to the bodys ability to store them Minerals Minerals are essential for the body to function properly, but do not provide energy * They are found in the body and are necessary for it to function adequately * Iron and calcium are the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in athletes * Athletes should look to dietary sources rather than supplementation to gain adequate minerals Protein * Proteins primary importance to the body is its structural role in safekeeping the cells together and in the growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue * higher(prenominal) levels of protein are needed by strength athletes, endurance athletes in heavy training and adolescents undergoing a growth spurt * However changes in the dietary balance are the preferred method of supplementation caffeine caffeine does appear to improve cognitive processes, such as alertness * Caffeine does not appear to enhance performance in short-term high intensity activities such as sprinting * Diuretic properties of caffeine suggest that it should be avoided as it may contribute to dehydration * A diuretic is a drug that increases the amount of fluid (water and urine) passing from the body * The only tell apart of caffeine enhancing performance is that it may assist specific metabolous processes, enhancing endurance performance * An ergogenic aid is a substance or blueprint that improves or is believed to improve physical performance Creatine products The body has two sources of creatine, production by body cells and food intake, particularly from meat * It is important in making energy available to sustain short duration explosive activity such as weight-lifting and sprinting * Creatine cannot be stored in the body * Muscle hypertrophy is more easily achieved when training is assisted by creatine supplementation, possibly related to the increase in weight it causes * There is little, if any benefit of supplementation to enhancing performance recuperation strategies * physiological strategies, e. g. cool down, hydration * neural strategies, e. g. hydrotherapy, corrade * tissue damage strategies, e. g. cryotherapy * psychological strategies, e. g. relaxation Recovery strategies Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume normal training and competition within the time span of the training program * Active rest is still regarded as the most beneficial form of recovery * Rest allows both physiological and psychological revitalisa tion to take its course * During rest, muscles repair and rebuild while energy and fluid levels are restored to pre-event levels * Short-term recovery requires activities such as cool-down following training, together with low intensity exercise to promote soft tissue repair and disperse lactic acid * Recovery strategies can be categorised as physiological, neural, tissue damage or psychological Physiological strategies (cool down, nutritional plan hydration + fuel recovery) * Physiological strategies need to focus on the removal of metabolous by-products and a nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy-rich nutrients * An effective cool-down is the recommended manner for removal of metabolic by-products * The purpose of a cool-down following exercise is to gradually reduce heart rate and metabolism to the pre-exercise state while also assisting in the removal of waste products including lactic acid, which contributes to muscle stiffness and soreness * It is also designed t o restore a number of other high-minded body functions, such as ventilation rate, blood distribution and adrenaline levels back to normal * The cool-down should consist of 5-10 minutes of walking / jogging / slow swimming, with the aim of returning the body to pre-exercise temperature * Static stretching is also important * Vigorous or sustained exercise that is not concluded with a cool-down may result in blood pooling, causing dizziness * A nutritional plan encompassing fluid recovery and fuel recovery is paramount * Drinking 600mL of water for every half kilogram of weight lost during exercise is ecommended * During the first 30 minutes to two hours following exercise the muscles are most receptive to glycogen enrichment and this is the best time for fuel recovery * A high carbohydrate diet is recommended during exercise recovery Neural strategies (hydrotherapy, work) * Neural strategies such as hydrotherapy and massage aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise * Strenuous exercise impacts on the central nervous system and this may contribute to fatigue * Hydrotherapy involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery * Water provides support for movements, and eliminates jarring and straining movements that are associated with record drills * Typical hydrotherapy methods involve use of steam rooms, spas, underwater massage and heated swimming pools * Sports massage focuses on body and mental relaxation It is important as exercise induced tension can cause stress on joints, ligaments, tendons and muscles * Post-event massage claims to help relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension, assist in eliminating toxic by-products, promote flexibility and prepare the athlete for the next training session Tissue damage strategies (cryotherapy) * Cryotherapy involves the use of cooling to treat injury or quicken recovery from performances, particularly those that involve collisions and / o r sustained intensity * Ice is the most used form of cryotherapy because of its ability to slow down the tissue inflammatory process, preventing the build-up of waste Psychological strategies (relaxation) Use of psychological strategies represents an important phase in emotional and possibly spiritual recovery * Mind relaxing activities such as reading, hearing to music, and watching movies or television are helpful and used by most athletes * The benefits of other more specialised psychological techniques such as progressive muscular relaxation, flotation, meditation, visualisation, centred breathing and positive self-talk are realised if practice frequently Chapter 8 Skill and performance * Skill is the ability to consistently perform movements with control and precision * The science of skill is a gradual development process that requires that our cognitive (thinking) processes work with our physical abilities to learn how to perform movements that previously were unfamiliar t o us * Acquisition is gaining possession of something Stages of skill skill * cognitive * associative * autonomous Stages of skill acquisition The formats of skill acquisition can be categorised into the cognitive or planning stage, the associative or practice stage and the autonomous or automatic stage Cognitive stage * Cognitive refers to mental processing of knowledge, thinking and reasonableness * The fundamental requirement here is that the athlete gains an understanding of the task required * The learner may experience error, awkwardness and some disorientation * Positive learning should be reinforced and encouraged associable stage * Associative means connecting or linking ideas * The associative stage is identified by a specific emphasis on practice * Errors still occur, but are smaller and less frequent than in the cognitive stage * A sense of fluency or smoothness develops as the learners kinaesthesis improves Autonomous stage Autonomous means being in full control of actions so they become automatic * Temporal patterning is developed, where their movement has a characteristic fluency as the sub-routines sequence and blend in aesthetically pleasing motions Characteristics of the learner, e. g. personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience, ability Characteristics of the learner * The speed with which learners are able to acquire certain motor skills depends on a number of factors, of which most are inherent features * Some characteristics of learners that affect the rate of learning are personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience and ability in-personity Personality refers to an individuals characteristic way of behaving * From a motor learning point of view, certain aspects of personality tend to be more favourable with certain learning environments * Attributes affecting learning include cooperativeness, willingness to listen, determination, enthusiasm, dedication, level of motivation, aggressiveness and willingness to take risk s and learn * Traits are characteristics or observable features of a person heredity * Heredity refers to genetic characteristics inherited from our parents * Important hereditary characteristics are the relative percentage of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibres, somatotype, gender, height and conceptual ability * Somatotype is a persons body type or shape, with ectomorphic referring to linearity, mesmorphic referring to muscularity and endomorphic referring to roundness Confidence * Self-confidence is a firm belief in ones own ability * Confidence develops from experiencing success in learning situations * Confidence leads to self-belief Prior experience It is often easier to learn a new skill if similar movements have already been successfully acquired * change of learning is an important reality in the acquisition of new skills * askant transfer is the transfer from one task to another similar task e. g. forehand in ping pong and tennis * Vertical transfer is mastering a lower order task as a prerequisite for something much more difficult e. g. kicking using a kickboard and freestyle Ability * Ability is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine * Ability incorporates a range of factors, such as sense acuity, perception, reaction time and intelligence * Acuity is otherness The learning environment nature of the skill (open, closed, gross, fine, separate, serial, continuous, self-paced, outwardly paced) * the performance elements (decision-making, strategical and tactical development) * practice method (massed, distributed, whole, part) * feedback (internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance) The learning environment * The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practised, nurture from coaches and even the influence of surrounding weather conditions The nature of skill * Skills are commonl y classified as open or closed, gross motor or fine motor, discrete, serial or continuous, and self-paced or externally paced Open and closed skills Open skills occur in an environment that is atypical and frequently changing * Closed skills occur in an environment that is static and predictable * The closed environment is much more conducive to skill learning because the learner is not distracted by other factors * Skills can be placed along a continuum from closed to open arrant(a) motor and fine motor skills * Gross motor skills require the use of large muscle groups for exploit * Fine motor skills require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement Discrete, serial and continuous skills * Skills can be classified as discrete, serial or continuous according to where they begin and end * Discrete skills have a limpid beginning and end that can be identified e. g. a preceding role * Serial skills involve a equence of smaller movements that are assembled to mak e a total skill e. g. a layup in basketball * Continuous skills have no distinct beginning or end e. g. swimming Self-paced and externally paced skills * Self-paced skills are movements for which the performing artist determines the timing and speed of execution e. g. bowling in cricket * extraneously paced skills are movements for which an external source controls the timing e. g. batting in cricket Performance elements * The performance elements are decision making, strategic development and tactical development * The game-centred approach aims to focus on the whole game and all components Decision making full-bodied decision making is best achieved through observation, questioning, whole, part, whole approach, variation and creativity Strategic and tactic development * Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should be at a particular time and what to do * Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent * Strategic and tact ical development is built on the principles of technical efficiency, understanding and skilful execution Practice methods * The learning environment is further affected by the practice methods or training systems and routines designed to teach particular skills Massed and distributed practice Distributed practice (or spaced practice) involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or alternate activities being longer than the practice intervals * Distributed practice works best when the mover lacks interest, the task is difficult, motivation is low or the task causes fatigue * Massed practice involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the practice intervals * Massed practice works best when performers are highly motivated and fresh altogether and part practice * The whole practice method is applied when a skill is practised in its entirety * The part practice method is applied when a skill is broken into smaller components an d each discrete sub-skill is practised separately * Whole-part-whole practice is a combination of both methods Feedback Feedback is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance * The many types of feedback include internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance midland (or intrinsic) and external (or extrinsic) feedback * Internal feedback occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill and is received through the bodys proprioceptive mechanisms or senses * External feedback is all feedback other than that which occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill * Augmented feedback, a type of external feedback, is adjuvant information that is not given at the time that the skill is performed e. g. motion-picture show analysis Concurrent (or continuous) and delayed feedback * Concurrent feedback is received during the performance of a skill and it is relayed throughout the body by the prop rioceptive mechanism * slow feedback is received after the skill has been executed e. g. waiting for the result of a basketball shot Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of a movement, it is always external and may come from a coach or essays for example * Knowledge of performance is information about the pattern of the movement during execution, it gives feedback on the quality of the execution of the skill Assessment of skill and performance * characteristics of skilled performers, e. g. kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique * objective and subjective performance measures * validity and reliability of tests * personal versus incontrovertible judging criteria Assessment of skill and performance Characteristics of skilled performers * The movements of the skilled performer have certain observable qualities including kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and technique kinesthetic sense * Kinaesthesis (or kinaesthetic sense) refers to the system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attachments prospicience Skilled performers are better able to predict what may break in specific situations Consistency * The skilled performer is able to perform the desired movement repeatedly Technique * Technique is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular task Objective and subjective performance methods * Measurement is the process of using mathematical information to assess a particular physical ability * natural observation refers to a judgement of performance quality based on feelings, impressions or opinions rather than a measurement system * Objectivity is the goal to which a measure or test is independent of the observer harshness and reliability of tests Validity is the honesty of a test that is, the degree to which it measures what it is speculate to measure * The validity of a test is enhanced by accuracy in prediction and ensuring te st items contain the component being formalise * Reliability refers to the degree of consistency of a test that is, the ability of the test and tester to produce the same results on successive occasions Personal versus prescribed judging criteria * Criteria refer to the standards / qualities used for judging the value of a performance * Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance * Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity * Appraisal is a judgement about the quality of something or somebody * The use of prescribed criteria seeks to absorb elements of subjectivity into a more objective framework